Reactivity,stability and electrochemical behavior of lithium iron phosphates

LiFePO₄ is a potential cathode candidate for the next generation of secondary lithium batteries. Its reactivity and thermodynamic stability have been determined. At low potentials it can be reduced to lithium phosphate and iron. The fully charged state, orthorhombic FePO₄, is metastable relative to the trigonal all tetrahedral form; however, the massive structural rearrangement necessary makes the structural change kinetically unfavorable at room temperature. LiFePO₄ has been prepared by a variety of routes. When synthesized at elevated temperatures in the presence of a carbon gel, only LiFePO₄ was detected by X-ray diffraction even when the starting material was LiFePO₄(OH). At a C/2 discharge/charge rate, LiFePO₄ retained about 80% of the theoretical capacity cycling at room temperature. The hydrothermal form shows some iron disorder, which impacts its electrochemical and chemical reactions.     

Enhanced electrochemical performance of LiFePO4 of cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries synthesized by surfactant-assisted solvothermal method

Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄) cathode materials were synthesized by the solvothermal method with the assistance of different surfactants. The influences of polyethylene glycol 2000 (PEG 2000), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), and cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) on the microstructure and electrochemical performance of LiFePO₄ were investigated by using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and charge/discharge measurements. The particle size of the LiFePO₄ synthesized with the assistance of PEG was uniform and showed a flat rhombohedron-like shape. The initial discharge specific capacity is up to 122.80 mAh/g with an initial coulombic efficiency of 95.50% at 0.1C. LiFePO₄ synthesized with PVP-assisted presents a porous structure with an initial discharge specific capacity of 91.01 mAh/g. LiFePO₄ synthesized with CTAB-assisted shows a flower-like morphology with an initial discharge specific capacity of 100.44 mAh/g. Though the initial discharge capacities of the LiFePO₄ materials prepared with the assistance of CTAB and PVP are lower than those of the LiFePO₄ prepared without the assistance of surfactant, the two materials exhibited excellent cyclic stability at 0.1C.

     

Continuous supercritical hydrothermal synthesis: lithium secondary ion battery applications

Nanosized lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄) and transition metal oxide (MO, where M is Cu, Ni, Mn, Co, and Fe) particles are synthesized continuously in supercritical water at 25?C30?MPa and 400??C under various conditions for active material application in lithium secondary ion batteries. The properties of the nanoparticles, including crystallinity, particle size, surface area, and electrochemical performance, are characterized in detail. The discharge capacity of LiFePO₄ was enhanced up to 140?mAh/g using a simple carbon coating method. The LiFePO₄ particles prepared using supercritical hydrothermal synthesis (SHS) deliver the reversible and stable capacity at a current density of 0.1?C rate during ten cycles. The initial discharge capacity of the MO is in the range of 800?C1,100?mAh/g, values much higher than that of graphite. However, rapid capacity fading is observed after the first few cycles. The continuous SHS can be a promising method to produce nanosized cathode and anode materials.     

LiFePO4的软化学合成及锂快离子导体修饰

采用溶剂热法制备正极材料LiFePO_4,采用溶胶凝胶法制备Li_(0.5)La_(0.5)TiO_3(LLTO)粉体,并通过酒精悬浮法对LiFePO_4进行修饰,修饰量为LiFePO_4质量的1%~4%,获得了薄壁蜂窝状自组装结构的LiFePO_4上修饰有球状LLTO纳米颗粒的复合正极材料。通过进行充放电测试、交流阻抗测试及循环伏安测试,研究了不同修饰量对电池的充放电比容量、循环性能及可逆性的影响,发现当LLTO含量为3%(w/w)时,以2C和5C倍率放电相对于没有修饰LLTO的LiFePO_4的比容量分别提高29.7%和31.6%,30次循环之后,容量损失率较未改性前减小4.13%,循环伏安曲线上氧化还原峰之间的电位差仅为0.117 V,以3%的LLTO修饰改性的LiFePO_4显著提高了电池的倍率性能、循环性能和低温性能。     

Li<Subscript>0.99</Subscript>Ti<Subscript>0.01</Subscript>FePO<Subscript>4</Subscript>/C composite as cathode material for lithium ion battery

Three kinds of LiFePO₄ materials, mixed with carbon (as LiFePO₄/C), doped with Ti (as Li_0.99Ti_0.01FePO₄), and treated both ways (as Li_0.99Ti_0.01FePO₄/C composite), were synthesized via ball milling by solid-state reaction method. The crystal structure and electrochemical behavior of the materials were investigated using X-ray diffraction, SEM, TEM, cyclic voltammetry, and charge/discharge cycle measurements. It was found that the electrochemical behavior of LiFePO₄ could be increased by carbon coating and Ti-doping methods. Among the materials, Li_0.99Ti_0.01FePO₄/C composite presents the best electrochemical behavior, with an initial discharge capacity of 154.5 mAh/g at a discharge rate of 0.2 C, and long charge/discharge cycle life. After 120 cycles, its capacity remains at 92% of the initial capacity. The Li_0.99Ti_0.01FePO₄/C composite developed here can be used as the cathode material for lithium ion batteries.     

LiFePO4/C正极材料的液相合成及电化学性能研究

尝试对共沉淀法进行改进, 利用自制的加料装置合成了橄榄石型LiFePO₄/C复合正极材料. 应用X射线衍射(XRD)、扫描电镜(SEM)、X射线能谱(EDS)、循环伏安(CV)以及恒电流充放电测试等方法对目标材料进行了结构表征和电化学性能测试. 实验结果表明采用该法得到的样品具有单一的橄榄石结构, 样品形貌规则, 粒径细小均匀. 改性后的材料具有较高的首放容量及良好的循环稳定性能. 0.1C倍率下充放电测试表明, 其首次放电比容量超过145 mAh•g^－1, 50次循环后, 容量没有明显衰减. 0.2C和0.5C倍率下的平均放电容量分别为130及120 mAh•g^－1, 循环过程中样品表现出较好的循环稳定性.     

Nanoscale Surface Modification of Lithium‐Rich Layered‐Oxide Composite Cathodes for Suppressing Voltage Fade

Lithium‐rich layered oxides are promising cathode materials for lithium‐ion batteries and exhibit a high reversible capacity exceeding 250 mAh g⁻¹. However, voltage fade is the major problem that needs to be overcome before they can find practical applications. Here, Li_1.2Mn_0.54Ni_0.13Co_0.13O₂ (LLMO) oxides are subjected to nanoscale LiFePO₄ (LFP) surface modification. The resulting materials combine the advantages of both bulk doping and surface coating as the LLMO crystal structure is stabilized through cationic doping, and the LLMO cathode materials are protected from corrosion induced by organic electrolytes. An LLMO cathode modified with 5 wt % LFP (LLMO–LFP5) demonstrated suppressed voltage fade and a discharge capacity of 282.8 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.1 C with a capacity retention of 98.1 % after 120 cycles. Moreover, the nanoscale LFP layers incorporated into the LLMO surfaces can effectively maintain the lithium‐ion and charge transport channels, and the LLMO–LFP5 cathode demonstrated an excellent rate capacity.     

A rapid polyol combustion strategy towards scalable synthesis of nanostructured LiFePO4/C cathodes for Li-ion batteries

In the present study, carbon-coated lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄/C) is prepared directly by a polyol-assisted pyro-synthesis performed under reaction times of a few seconds in open-air conditions. The polyol solvent, tetraethylene glycol (TTEG), acts as a low-cost fuel to facilitate combustion and the released exothermic energy promotes the nucleation and growth processes of the olivine nanoparticles. In addition, phosphoric acid (used as the phosphorous source) acts as a catalyst to accelerate polyol carbonization. The structure analysis of the as-prepared LiFePO₄/C using X-ray, neutron diffraction and ⁷Li NMR studies suggested the efficacy of the rapid technique to produce highly crystalline phase-pure olivine nanocrystals. The electron microscopy and particle-size distribution studies revealed that the average particle diameters lie below 100 nm and confirmed the presence of a surface carbon layer of 2–3 nm thickness. The thermal and elemental studies indicated that the carbon content in the sample was approximately 5 %. The prepared LiFePO₄/C cathode delivered capacities of 162 mA h g^-1 at 0.1 °C rates with impressive capacity retention for extended cycling. The polyol-assisted pyro-synthesis, which evades the use of external energy sources, is not only a straightforward, simple and timely approach but also offers opportunities for large-scale LiFePO₄/C production.     

Surface treatment of LiFePO4 cathode material with PPy/PEG conductive layer

In this work, we studied LiFePO₄ particles coated with thin films of highly conductive polypyrrole (PPy) and their electrochemical performance in cathode layers of lithium cells. Carbon-free LiFePO₄ particles were synthesized by a solvothermal method. Besides this, a part of the experiments were carried out on commercial carbon-coated LiFePO₄ for comparison. Polypyrrole coated LiFePO₄ particles (PPy-LiFePO₄) were obtained by a straightforward oxidative polymerization of dissolved pyrrole on LiFePO₄ particles dispersed in water. The use of polyethylene glycol (PEG) as an additive during the polymerization was decisive to achieve high electronic conductivities in the final cathode layers. The carbon-free and carbon-coated LiFePO₄ particles were prepared with PPy and with PPy/PEG coating. The obtained PPy-LiFePO₄ and PPy/PEG-LiFePO₄ powders were characterized by SEM, EIS, cyclic voltammetry, and galvanostatic charge/discharge measurements in lithium-ion cells with lithium metal as counter and reference electrode. Carbon-free LiFePO₄ coated with PPy/PEG hybrid films exhibited very good electrode kinetics and a stable discharge capacity of 156 mAh/g at a rate of C/10. Impedance measurements showed that the PPy/PEG coating decreases the charge-transfer resistance of the corresponding LiFePO₄ cathode material very effectively, which was attributed to a favorable mixed ionic and electronic conductivity of the PPy/PEG coatings.     

金属氧化物掺杂改善LiFePO4电化学性能

采用氧化物前驱体对磷酸铁锂(LiFePO₄)进行少量金属离子掺杂，并用XRD，SEM和恒电流充放电对掺杂的LiFePO₄进行了研究。结果表明，少量的掺杂离子在很大程度上提高了LiFePO₄的电化学性能，特别是大电流放电性能。1.0 mol%的Nb⁵⁺掺杂LiFePO₄的0.1 C放电容量约150 mAh·g^-1；即使在3 C倍率下放电，也有117 mAh·g^-1的容量。掺杂的效果与掺杂离子的半径、价态密切相关，半径小、价态高的离子对提高LiFePO₄的电化学性能有利。在掺杂量较小时(<2.0 mol%)，掺杂效果与掺杂离子的浓度关系不大。     

Electrochemical study on lithium iron phosphate/hard carbon lithium-ion batteries

The electrochemical performances of lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄), hard carbon (HC) materials, and a full cell composed of these two materials were studied. Both positive and negative electrode materials and the full cell were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, charge–discharge tests, and alternating current (a.c.) impedance techniques. Experimental results show that the LiFePO₄/HC full cell exhibits a gradually decreased cell voltage, and it is capable of delivering a reversible discharge capacity of 122.1 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.2-C rate. At the higher rate of 10 C, the efficiency of the full cell remains almost unchanged from that of 0.2 C. Furthermore, the LiFePO₄/HC battery demonstrated a long life of 2,450 cycles with 40% of capacity change at a 10-C high rate. The internal resistance of the full cell is rather low as it is revealed from a.c. impedance measurements. These properties make the LiFePO₄/HC battery an attractive option for high rate and long cycle life power applications.     

Synthesis, characterization, and electrochemical performance of LiFePO4/C cathode materials for lithium ion batteries using various carbon sources: best results by using polystyrene nano-spheres

Olivine LiFePO₄/C cathode materials for lithium ion batteries were synthesized using monodisperse polystyrene (PS) nano-spheres and other carbon sources. The structure, morphology, and electrochemical performance of LiFePO₄/C were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), galvanostatic charge–discharge tests, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements, and Raman spectroscopy measurements. The results demonstrated that LiFePO₄/C materials have an ordered olivine-type structure with small particle sizes. Electrochemical analyses showed that the LiFePO₄/C cathode material synthesized from 7 wt.% PS nano-spheres delivers an initial discharge capacity of 167 mAh g^-1 (very close to the theoretical capacity of 170 mAh g^-1) at 0.1 C rate cycled between 2.5 and 4.1 V with excellent capacity retention after 50 cycles. According to Raman spectroscopy and EIS analysis, this composite had a lower I _D/I _G, sp ³/sp ² peak ratio, charge transfer resistance, and a higher exchange current density, indicating an improved electrochemical performance, due to the increased proportion of graphite-like carbon formed during pyrolysis of PS nano-spheres, containing functionalized aromatic groups.     

LiFePO4/C composites from carbothermal reduction method

Using the cheap raw materials lithium carbonate, iron phosphate, and carbon, LiFePO₄/C composite can be obtained from the carbothermal reduction method. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electronic microscope (SEM) observations were used to investigate the structure and morphology of LiFePO₄/C. The LiFePO₄ particles were coated by smaller carbon particles. LiFePO₄/C obtained at 750 °C presents good electrochemical performance with an initial discharge capacity of 133 mAh/g, capacity retention of 128 mAh/g after 20 cycles, and a diffusion coefficient of lithium ions in the LiFePO₄/C of 8.80?×?10^?13 cm²/s, which is just a little lower than that of LiFePO₄/C obtained from the solid-state reaction (9.20?×?10^?13 cm²/s) by using FeC₂O₄ as a precursor.     

采用复合锂源制备的LiFePO4/C材料及其碳含量优化

采用Li_2CO_3与Li OH·H_2O为复合锂源制备LiFePO_4/C材料,同时优化了材料中的碳含量。由于氢氧化锂的熔点低于碳酸锂,在同样的烧结温度下,采用复合锂源可以获得更佳的熔融状态,在高温合成过程中使锂离子具有更高的扩散性,能够更顺利地得到高纯度的LiFePO_4晶相。通过优化碳包覆量达到提高导电性与控制晶粒尺寸的目的,使材料晶相结构完整,纯度高,表现出优秀的加工性能与电化学性能。所制得的LiFePO_4/C材料放电克容量达到158.2 m Ah·g~(-1),在全电池中经过100 d存储后容量保持率仍然高于94.0%,具有优异的长期可靠性。     

Preparation of nano-structured LiFePO4/graphene composites by co-precipitation method

Graphene materials with superior electrical conductivities and high surface area would be advantageous for application in energy storage. And LiFePO₄ has been a promising electrode material however its poor conductivity limits its practical application. To improve the electronic conductivity, we prepare LiFePO₄/graphene composites in a co-precipitation method, in which graphene nanosheets are used as additives. The composites were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), and their electrochemical properties were investigated by galvanostatic charge and discharge tests. The experimental results show that the capacity delivery and cycle performances of LiFePO₄ could be improved considerably by adding graphene. Therefore, LiFePO₄/graphene composites are a promising candidate for lithium secondary batteries.     

流变相法制备倍率性能优异的LiFePO4/C复合材料

以月桂酸为碳源和表面活性剂,氢氧化锂、碳酸锂和醋酸锂为锂源,采用流变相法制备LiFePO4/C复合材料。运用X射线衍射(XRD)、扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、粒度分析、恒流充放电测试、循环伏安以及交流阻抗测试等方法对复合材料进行表征。结果表明,不同的锂源对LiFePO4/C复合材料的结构和电化学性能均有很大影响,以氢氧化锂为锂源合成的LiFePO4/C材料展示出最佳的循环性能和倍率性能。该材料在0.1C下放电比容量为153.4 mAh.g-1,在大倍率10 C下,容量保持率仍可达76%,甚至10C下循环800次后,容量衰减率仅有4%,SEM结果显示该材料具有较小的粒径(～200 nm),且分布集中,有效提高了电子迁移速率,从而改进了LiFePO4/C的倍率性能。     

纳米级锂离子电池正极材料LiFePO4

LiFePO₄以其价格便宜,稳定性好,无毒等优点而倍受关注。但是非纳米LiFePO₄的电子导电率低及扩散系数小限制了其在锂离子电池领域的大规模应用。而纳米电极材料以其特有的优点很好的解决了这些问题。本文主要综述了国内外合成纳米级LiFePO₄ 的不同方法及所得材料的对电化学性能和相关机理,以及纳米LiFePO₄作为锂离子正极材料存在的问题。     

Zr4+离子掺杂对LiFePO4结构及电化学性能的影响

应用固相反应法于惰性气氛下合成掺Zr的L iFePO4正极材料.考察Zr4+掺杂浓度对于目标化合物结构及其电化学性能的影响.XRD,交流阻抗和恒流充放电测试等实验表明,少量的Zr4+掺杂并未影响目标材料产物的结构,反而有利于降低L iFePO4电荷转移反应的阻抗,从而有利于克服该电极过程中的动力学限制.该正极材料表现出优良的倍率放电性能,在0.1C倍率下,L i0.99Zr0.01FePO4的首次放电比容量达135.6mAh.g-1.30次循环后,容量衰减仅3.8%.     

Superior high-rate cycling performance of LiFePO4/C-PPy composite at 55 °C

A facile chemical polymerization method was applied to prepare LiFePO₄/C-PPy composite using Fe(III)tosylate as oxidant. The as-prepared LiFePO₄/C-PPy sample with PPy content of approximately 4 wt% showed great rate capability with a discharge capacity of 115 mAh/g at 20C. High temperate cycling performance of the LiFePO₄/C-PPy sample was compared with bare LiFePO₄/C at 5C charge–discharge rate at 55 °C. The LiFePO₄/C-PPy cathode showed superior cycling stability with an initial capacity of 155 mAh/g. Ninety percentage of this initial capacity was retained after 300 cycles, compared to 40% of that of bare LiFePO₄/C. The LiFePO₄/C-PPy electrode showed stable discharge plateau voltage of 3.35–3.25 V vs. Li⁺/Li during long term cycling. The superior performance of the LiFePO₄/C-PPy electrode was due to the enhanced electrical conductivity, negligible iron dissolution and alleviated electrode cracking contributed by PPy coating.     

Effect of synthesis temperature and molar ratio of organic lithium salts on the properties and electrochemical performance of LiFePO4/C composites

LiFePO₄/C cathode materials were synthesized through in situ solid-state reaction route using Fe₂O₃, NH₄H₂PO₄, Li₂C₂O₄, and lithium polyacrylate as raw materials. The precursor of LiFePO₄/C was investigated by thermogravimetric/differential thermal analysis. The effects of synthesis temperature and molar ratio of organic lithium salts on the performance of samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, electrochemical impedance spectra, cyclic voltammogram, and constant current charge/discharge test. The sample prepared at optimized conditions of synthesis temperature at 700 °C and molar ratio with 1.17:1 exhibits excellent rate performance and cycling stability at room temperature.