Simulation of Transverse Combustion Instability in a Multi-Injector Combustor using the Time-Domain Impedance Boundary Conditions

The time-domain impedance boundary condition (TDIBC) is used as a reduced-order model (ROM) in large-eddy simulation (LES) to study self-sustained transverse oscillations in an experimentally studied high-pressure, shear coaxial multi-injector combustor. This work is an extension of the recent study using ROM-LES to simulate a single-element combustor that exhibited longitudinal instability. Here, we focus on transverse instability in a seven-injector combustor. The fuel and oxidizer inlets are truncated and the conventional inflow boundary conditions at the original inlet are replaced by an impedance describing function (IDF) in the form of a reflection coefficient that couples with LES through characteristic based boundary conditions at the truncated inlet. The impedance model is also generalized to include the effects of entropy fluctuations at the inflow. The hybrid ROM-LES simulations are compared with LES simulations with the full combustor geometry. Results show very good agreement and confirm that the use of TDIBC within LES is a viable tool to account for complex acoustic/boundary interaction in a physical way without explicitly solving the full geometry at LES level. Some simplifications and approximations have to be invoked and these constraints are also discussed.     

Study of Flow and Mixing in a Generic GT Combustor Using LES

While the basic capability of large eddy simulation (LES) has been amply demonstrated on a number of relatively simple academic configurations, there is still a lack of works applying LES to practical systems also performing detailed quantitative comparisons based on experimental data. In this paper, we tend to approach the simulation of real gas turbine combustor step by step as we first present results of the isothermal LES of a generic gas turbine combustor rig. The available detailed measurements are used to thoroughly validate the LES results. Beyond a pure validation, the LES is used to analyze the influence of the precessing vortex core present in the studied configuration on the mixing of fuel and oxidizer, and possible implications for reacting conditions are discussed.     

LES of a Multi-burner Annular Gas Turbine Combustor

In this study, Large Eddy Simulation (LES) has been used to predict the flow, mixing and combustion in both a single burner laboratory gas turbine combustor and in an 18 burner annular combustor, having identical cross sections. The LES results for the single burner laboratory combustor are compared with experimental data for a laboratory model of this combustor, and with other LES predictions, with good agreement. An explicit finite volume based LES model, using the mixed subgrid model together with a partially stirred reactor model for the turbulence chemistry interactions, is used. For the annular combustor, with the swirlers parameterized by jet inflow boundary conditions, we have investigated the influence of the a-priori unknown combustor exit impedance, the influence of the swirler characteristics and the fuel type. The combustion chemistry of methane–air and n-decane–air combustion is modeled by a two-step reaction mechanism, whereas NOx is separately modeled with a one-step mechanism. No experimental data exists for the annular combustor, but these results are compared with the single burner LES and experimental results available. The combustor exit impedance, the swirler- and fuel characteristics all seem to influence the combusting flow through the acoustics of the annular combustor. To examine this in greater detail time-series and eigenmodes of the combustor flow fields are analyzed and comparisons are made also with results from conventional thermoacoustic eigenmode analysis, with reasonable agreement. The flow and pressure distributions in the annular combustor are described in some detail and the mechanisms by which the burners interact are outlined.     

Time-domain Impedance Boundary Conditions for Computational Acoustics and Aeroacoustics

This paper reviews the short history, motivation, numerical and theoretical issues, and development of methods for treating a boundary as a reflective/absorptive surface for the time-domain computation of waves in general and acoustic waves in particular. It begins with the extension and implementation of the frequency-domain impedance to a time-domain impedance-equivalent boundary condition (TDIBC), and illustrates how the theoretical, numerical, and implementation issues are addressed and resolved for acoustic/aeroacoustic applications. Comments are also made on the extendibility and applicability of the concept and TDIBC to other fields and types of problems.     

Large Eddy Simulation of the Flow Over a Three-Dimensional Hill

This paper investigates the use of LES for a flow around a three-dimensional axisymmetric hill. Two aspects of this simulation in particular are discussed here, the resolution and the inlet boundary conditions. In contrast to the LES of flows with sharp edge separations which do not require the near-wall dynamics to be fully resolved, the hill flow LES relies on the resolution of the upstream boundary layer in order to provoke the separation at a correct position. Although around 15 ×10⁶ computational cells were used, the resolution of streaky structures in the near-wall region that are important for a LES is not achieved. Two different inlet boundary conditions were used: the steady experimental profile and the time-dependent boundary conditions produced from DNS results of low Reynolds number channel flow. No significant improvement in the results was obtained with the unsteady inlet condition. This indicates that, although the unsteady inlet boundary conditions may be necessary for a successful LES of this flow, they must be followed with the resolution of the boundary layer for a successful LES.     

LES/RANS方法混合函数特性研究

将两方程k-ω SST湍流模型和Sagaut的混合尺度亚格子模型通过一个混合函数相结合, 构造出一种混合大涡/雷诺平均N-S方程模拟方法(hybird large eddy simulation/reynolds-averaged navier-stokes, Hybrid LES/RANS), 采用这种混合模拟方法结合5阶WENO格式对Ma=2.8平板湍流边界层进行了数值模拟, 并在计算区域上游入口处采用“回收/调节”方法生成湍流脉动边界条件, 通过考查RANS区域向LES区域的过渡参数及网格分辨率对这种混合模拟方法进行了评价. 计算结果表明: 该文采用的混合模拟方法可以捕捉到湍流边界层中的大尺度结构且入口边界层平均参数不会发生漂移, 混合函数应当将RANS区域和LES区域的过渡点设置在对数律层和尾迹律层的交界处, 而过渡应当迅速以获得正确的雷诺剪切应力分布, 在该文采用的模型及数值方法的条件下, 流向及展向的网格小至与Escudier混合长相当时, 能够获得可以接受的脉动速度的单点-二阶统计值.     

A reformulated synthetic turbulence generation method for a zonal RANS–LES method and its application to zero-pressure gradient boundary layers

A synthetic turbulence generation (STG) method for subsonic and supersonic flows at low and moderate Reynolds numbers to provide inflow distributions of zonal Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) – large-eddy simulation (LES) methods is presented. The STG method splits the LES inflow region into three planes where a local velocity signal is decomposed from the turbulent flow properties of the upstream RANS solution. Based on the wall-normal position and the local flow Reynolds number, specific length and velocity scales with different vorticity content are imposed at the inlet plane of the boundary layer. The quality of the STG method for incompressible and compressible zero-pressure gradient boundary layers is shown by comparing the zonal RANS–LES data with pure LES, pure RANS, and direct numerical simulation (DNS) solutions. The distributions of the time and spanwise wall-shear stress, Reynolds stress distributions, and two point correlations of the zonal RANS–LES simulations are smooth in the transition region and in good agreement with the pure LES and reference DNS findings. The STG approach reduces the RANS-to-LES transition length to less than four boundary-layer thicknesses.     

Modelling of a Premixed Swirl-stabilized Flame Using a Turbulent Flame Speed Closure Model in LES

This paper proposes a combustion model based on a turbulent flame speed closure (TFC) technique for large eddy simulation (LES) of premixed flames. The model was originally developed for the RANS (Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes equations) approach and was extended here to LES. The turbulent quantities needed for calculation of the turbulent flame speed are obtained at the sub grid level. This model was at first experienced via an test case and then applied to a typical industrial combustor with a swirl stabilized flame. The paper shows that the model is easy to apply and that the results are promising. Even typical frequencies of arising combustion instabilities can be captured. But, the use of compressible LES may also lead to unphysical pressure waves which have their origin in the numerical treatment of the boundary conditions.     

The effect of inflow conditions on the transition to turbulence in large eddy simulations of spatially developing mixing layers

Large Eddy Simulations (LES) of spatially developing turbulent mixing layers have been performed for flows of uniform density and Reynolds numbers of up to 50,000 based on the visual thickness of the layer and the velocity difference across it. On a fine LES grid, a validation simulation performed with a hyperbolic tangent inflow profile produces flow statistics that compare extremely well with reference Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) data. An inflow profile derived from laminar Blasius profiles produces a flow that is significantly different to the reference DNS, particularly with respect to the initial development of the flow. When compared with experimental data, however, it is the boundary layer-type inflow simulation produces the better prediction of the flow statistics, including the mean transition location. It is found that the boundary layer inflow condition is more unstable than the hyperbolic tangent inlet profile. A suitably designed coarse LES grid produces good predictions of the mean transition location with boundary layer inflow conditions at a low computational cost. The results suggest that hyperbolic tangent functions may produce unreliable DNS data when used as the initial condition for studies of the transition in the mixing layer flow.     

Large Eddy Simulation of a Controlled Diffusion Compressor Cascade

In this research a Controlled Diffusion (CD) compressor cascade stator blade is simulated at a Reynolds number of ??700,000, based on inflow velocity and chord length, using Large Eddy Simulation (LES). A wide range of flow inlet angles are computed, including conditions near the design angle, and at high negative and positive incidence. At all inlet angles the surface pressure distributions are well-predicted by the LES. Near the design angle the computed suction side boundary layer thickness agrees well with experimental data, whilst the pressure side boundary layer is poorly predicted due to the inability of LES to capture natural boundary layer transition on the present grid. A good estimation of the loss is computed near the design angle, whilst at both high positive and negative incidences the loss is less well predicted owing to discrepancies between the computed and experimental boundary layer thickness. At incidences above the design angle a laminar separation bubble forms near the leading edge of the suction surface, which undergoes a transition to turbulence. Similar behaviour is noted on the pressure surface at negative incidence. At high negative incidence contra-rotating vortex pairs are found to form around the leading edge in response to an unsteady stagnation line across the span of the blade. Such structures are not apparent in time-averaged statistical data due to their highly-transient nature.     

LES of Chemical and Acoustic Forcing of a Premixed Dump Combustor

This paper describes the first steps in the development of a large eddy simulation (LES) code able to compute combustion instabilities in gas turbines. This code was used to compute the forcing of an experimentally investigated premixed dump combustor. It is shown that the main effect of acoustic waves entering the combustion chamber is to create large vortices and unsteady heat release when these vortices burn. Another effect of waves entering the combustor is to modulate the fuel and air flow rates produced by the feeding lines. In this case the equivalence ratio of the mixture entering the combustor may also vary. This was investigated in a “chemical effect” simulation where the inlet equivalence ratio fluctuates but the total flow rate remains constant. For perturbations from stoichiometric burning, this mechanism was shown to induce less destabilizing effects than the purely aerodynamical mechanism due to vortex formation and combustion. It is shown that the LES methodology developed is able to reproduce the experimentally observed phase shift between acoustic excitation and total reaction rate in the chamber. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Subgrid Model Influence in Large Eddy Simulations of Non-reacting Flow in a Gas Turbine Combustor

Fuel efficiency improvement and harmful emission reduction are the paramount driving forces for development of gas turbine combustors. Lean-burn combustors can accomplish these goals, but require specific flow topologies to overcome their sensitivity to combustion instabilities. Large Eddy Simulations (LES) can accurately capture these complex and intrinsically unsteady flow fields, but estimating the appropriate numerical resolution and subgrid model(s) still remain challenges. This paper discusses the prediction of non-reacting flow fields in the DLR gas turbine model combustor using LES. Several important features of modern gas turbine combustors are present in this model combustor: multiple air swirlers and recirculation zones for flame stabilisation. Good overall agreement is obtained between LES outcomes and experimental results, both in terms of time-averaged and temporal RMS values. Findings of this study include a strong dependence of the opening angle of the swirling jet inside the combustion chamber on the subgrid viscosity, which acts mainly through the air mass flow split between the two swirlers in the DLR model combustor. This paper illustrates the ability of LES to obtain accurate flow field predictions in complex gas turbine combustors making use of open-source software and computational resources available to industry.     

Novel Implementation and Assessment of a Digital Filter Based Approach for the Generation of LES Inlet Conditions

A novel implementation of a digital filter based inlet condition generator for Large Eddy Simulation (LES) is presented. The effect of using spatially varying turbulence scales as inputs is investigated; it is found that this has impact on both accuracy and affordability, and has prompted the algorithm implementation changes described in the paper. LES of a channel flow with a periodically repeating constriction was used as a test case. The accuracy of the present simulation using a streamwise periodic boundary condition (PBC) was first established by comparison with a previously published highly resolved LES study. Post-processed statistics from the PBC simulation were then input into a Digital Filter Generator (DFG) algorithm. Three time series were created using the DFG for subsequent use as LES inlet conditions. In the first, as well as inputting the spatially varying first and second moments of the velocity field over the inlet plane from the PBC simulation, the turbulence scales input into the DFG were chosen to be spatially uniform with values specified by an area weighted average across the channel inlet height. In the second and third time-series, the turbulence scales were allowed to change in the wall normal direction, their variation again being deduced from the PBC simulation. These various time series were then used as inlet boundary conditions for LES prediction of the same flow case. Analysis of the results and comparison to the PBC predictions showed that the use of spatially varying turbulence scales increased the accuracy of the simulation in some important areas. However, the cost of generating unsteady inlet conditions using the DFG approach increased significantly with the use of spatially varying turbulence scales. Consequently, a new technique applied as part of the DFG approach is described (used as an ‘on the fly’ method), which significantly reduces the cost of generating LES inlet conditions, even when spatially non-uniform turbulent scales are used.     

Large-Scale Turbulent Vortical Structures inside a Sudden Expansion Cylinder Chamber

A large eddy simulation (LES) is performed for turbulent flow around a bluff body inside a sudden expansion cylinder chamber, a configuration which resembles a premixed gas turbine combustor. To promote turbulent mixing and to accommodate flame stability, a flame holder is installed inside the combustion chamber. The Smagorinsky model and the Lagrangian dynamic subgrid-scale model are employed and tested. The calculated Reynolds number is 5,000 based on the bulk velocity and the diameter of inlet pipe. The simulation code is constructed by using a general coordinate system based on the physical contravariant velocity components. The predicted turbulent statistics are evaluated by comparing with the laser-doppler velocimetry (LDV) measurement data. The agreement of LES with the experimental data is shown to be satisfactory. Emphasis is placed on the time-dependent evolutions of turbulent vortical structures behind the flame holder. The numerical flow visualizations depict the behavior of large-scale vortices. The turbulent behavior behind the flame holder is analyzed by visualizing the sectional views of vortical structure. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Large-Eddy Simulation of Lean Premixed Turbulent Flames of Three Different Combustion Configurations using a Novel Reaction Closure

This large eddy simulation (LES) study is applied to three different premixed turbulent flames under lean conditions at atmospheric pressure. The hierarchy of complexity of these flames in ascending order are a simple Bunsen-like burner, a sudden-expansion dump combustor, and a typical swirl-stabilized gas turbine burner–combustor. The purpose of this paper is to examine numerically whether the chosen combination of the Smagorinsky turbulence model for sgs fluxes and a novel turbulent premixed reaction closure is applicable over all the three combustion configurations with varied degree of flow and turbulence. A quality assessment method for the LES calculations is applied. The cold flow data obtained with the Smagorinsky closure on the dump combustor are in close proximity with the experiments. It moderately predicts the vortex breakdown and bubble shape, which control the flame position on the double-cone burner. Here, the jet break-up at the root of the burner is premature and differs with the experiments by as much as half the burner exit diameter, attributing the discrepancy to poor grid resolution. With the first two combustion configurations, the applied subgrid reaction model is in good correspondence with the experiments. For the third case, a complex swirl-stabilized burner–combustor configuration, although the flow field inside the burner is only modestly numerically explored, the level of flame stabilization at the junction of the burner–combustor has been rather well captured. Furthermore, the critical flame drift from the combustor into the burner was possible to capture in the LES context (which was not possible with the RANS plus k–ɛ model), however, requiring tuning of a prefactor in the reaction closure.     

Inlet grid-generated turbulence for large-eddy simulations

A new technique of generating turbulence in large-eddy simulations (LES) has been investigated and results compared with previous studies for validation. The proposed gridInlet technique uses a grid pattern on the inlet boundary patch to produce grid-generated turbulence as used in wind tunnel experiments. This allows the turbulence integral length scale to be controlled by changing the grid size, while the turbulence intensity is controlled by changing the inlet distance. The objective of this paper is to investigate domain and mesh requirements to implement the gridInlet technique. This technique is most suited to studies on the influence of high-intensity isotropic turbulence on objects, particularly if comparisons are to be made to experimental data obtained with grid-generated turbulence.     

A computational study of supersonic combustion behind a wedge-shaped flameholder

In this study, large eddy simulation (LES) has been used to examine supersonic flow, mixing, self-ignition and combustion in a model scramjet combustor and has been compared against the experimental data. The LES model is based on an unstructured finite-volume discretization, using monotonicity-preserving flux reconstruction of the filtered mass, momentum, species and energy equations. Both a two-step and a seven-step hydrogen–air mechanism are used to describe the chemical reactions. Additional comparisons are made with results from a previously presented flamelet model. The subgrid flow terms are modeled using a mixed model, whereas the subgrid turbulence–chemistry interaction terms are modeled using the partially stirred reactor model. Simulations are carried out on a scramjet model experimentally studied at Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt consisting of a one-sided divergent channel with a wedge-shaped flame holder at the base of which hydrogen is injected. The LES predictions are compared with experimental data for velocity, temperature, wall pressure at different cross sections as well as schlieren images, showing good agreement for both first- and second-order statistics. In addition, the LES results are used to illustrate and explain the intrinsic flow, and mixing and combustion features of this combustor.     

Investigation of Anisotropy-Resolving Turbulence Models by Reference to Highly-Resolved LES Data for Separated Flow

The predictive properties of several non-linear eddy-viscosity models are investigated by reference to highly-resolved LES data obtained by the authors for an internal flow featuring massive separation from a curved surface. The test geometry is a periodic segment of a channel constricted by two-dimensional (2D) `hills' on the lower wall. The mean-flow Reynolds number is 21560. Periodic boundary conditions are applied in the streamwise and spanwise directions. This makes the statistical properties of the simulated flow genuinely 2D and independent from boundary conditions, except at the walls. The simulation was performed on a high-quality, 5M-node grid. The focus of the study is on the exploitation of the LES data for the mean-flow, Reynolds stresses and macro-length-scale. Model solutions are first compared with the LES data, and selected models are then subjected to a-priori studies designed to elucidate the role of specific model fragments in the non-linear stress-strain/vorticity relation and their contribution to observed defects in the mean-flow and turbulence fields. The role of the equation governing the length-scale, via different surrogate variables, is also investigated. It is shown that, while most non-linear models overestimate the separation region, due mainly to model defects that result in insufficient shear stress in the separated shear layer, model forms can be derived which provide a satisfactory representation of the flow. One such model is identified. This combines a particular quadratic constitutive relation with a wall-anisotropy term, a high-normal-strain correction and a new form of the equation for the specific dissipation ω = ∈/k. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Assessing the Predictive Capabilities of Combustion LES as Applied to the Sydney Flame Series

Large Eddy Simulation (LES) and flamelet-based combustion models were applied to four bluff-body stabilized nonpremixed and partially premixed flames selected from the Sydney flame series, based on Masri’s bluff-body test rig (University of Sydney). Three related non-reacting flow cases were also investigated to assess the performance of the LES solver. Both un-swirled and swirled cases were studied exhibiting different flow features, such as recirculation, jet precessing and vortex breakdown. Due to various fuel compositions, flow rates and swirl numbers, the combustion characteristics of the flames varied greatly. On six meshes with different blocking structure and mesh sizes, good prediction of flow and scalar fields using LES/flamelet approaches and known fuel and oxidizer mass fluxes was achieved. The accuracy of predictions was strongly influenced by the combustion model used. All flames were calculated using at least two modeling strategies. Starting with calculations of isothermal flow cases, simple single flamelet based calculations were carried out for the corresponding reacting cases. The combustion models were then adjusted to fit the requirements of each flame. For all flame calculations good agreement of the main flow features with the measured data was achieved. For purely nonpremixed flames burning attached to the bluff-body’s outer edge, flamelet modeling including strain rate effects provided good results for the flow field and for most scalars. The prediction of a partially premixed swirl flame could only be achieved by applying a flamelet-based progress variable approach.