Prediction of melt depth in selected architectural materials during high-power diode laser treatment

The development of an accurate analysis procedure for many laser applications, including the surface treatment of architectural materials, is extremely complicated due to the multitude of process parameters and materials characteristics involved. A one-dimensional analytical model based on Fourier's law, with quasi-stationary situations in an isotropic and inhomogeneous workpiece with a parabolic meltpool geometry being assumed, was successfully developed. This model, with the inclusion of an empirically determined correction factor, predicted high-power diode laser-induced melt depths in clay quarry tiles, ceramic tiles and ordinary Portland cement that were in close agreement with those obtained experimentally. It was observed, however, that as the incident laser line energy increased (>15 W mm⁻¹ s^−1/2), the calculated and the experimental melt depths began to diverge at an increasing rate. It is believed that this observed increasing discrepancy can be attributed to the fact the model developed neglects sideways conduction which, although it can be reasonably neglected at low-energy densities, becomes significant at higher energy densities since one-dimensional heat transfer no longer holds true.     

Laser produced melt pool: Influence of laser intensity parameter on flow field in melt pool

The flow field developed in the laser produced melt pool is investigated and the influence of the Marangoni effect on temperature field is examined. The experiment is carried out to trace the solidified melt pool geometry and the heating is simulated in line with the experimental conditions to predict the melt size in the irradiated region. In the simulations, the control volume approach is used incorporating the Marangoni effect. The enthalpy-porosity method is adopted to account for the phase change in the irradiated region. The study is extended to include the influence of the laser intensity parameter (β) on temperature and the flow field in the melt pool. It is found that the melt pool geometry and the flow field in the melt pool is influenced by the laser intensity parameter. In this case, the number of circulation cell formed in the melt pool is doubled for the intensity parameter 0.4≤β≤0.6. The predictions of the melt pool geometry agree well with the experimental data.     

CO2 laser heating of surfaces: Melt pool formation at surface

The melt pool formation during the heating of titanium and steel surfaces by a moving CO₂ laser beam is examined. The repetitive pulses are introduced in the simulations and the Marangoni effect in the melt pool is incorporated in the model study. The influence of laser scanning speed and the laser intensity parameter on the melt pool size is also considered. The enthalpy–porosity method is adopted to account for the phase change in the irradiated spot. It is found that the influence of laser scanning speed on the melt pool size is considerable, which is more pronounced for laser beam parameter β=1. The melt pool size is smaller for stainless steel as compared to that corresponding to titanium.     

Scaling and instability analyses on flame spread over liquids

Stability and scaling analyses were applied to experimental data obtained by this group and other researchers on pulsating flame spread over liquids. Data to be analyzed include recent findings of cyclic appearance of a cold temperature valley at the liquid surface-created surface-wave ahead of the spreading flame, and main-pulsation of 0.5–2 Hz and sub-pulsation of 5–10 Hz. Our stability analysis is performed to understand the mechanism of instability on the liquid surface ahead of a flame’s leading edge, which is thought of as the major cause for pulsating flame spread. The scaling analysis is performed to explore the role of four independent (gravity, surface-tension, viscose, and inertia) forces on the mechanisms of flame spread. These four forces form three independent pi-numbers: Marangoni (Ma) number, Weber (We) number, and Froude (Fr) number, all of which include the critical length scale ratio: (height of sub-surface circulation)/(horizontal length of preheated liquid surface). We combined the wave equation obtained from the stability analysis, the three pi-numbers, and the critical length scale ratio, and used them as a universal formula to describe flame spread over liquids. Using this formula, flame spread mechanism over four different types of alcohols was divided into two separate regimes: the thin liquid pool and the thick-liquid pool. For the thin liquid pool, the flame spread rate was correlated with (Fr/Ma^0.5)^−1.0, while for the thick-liquid pool it was correlated with (Fr/Ma^0.5)^−1.5. Change of flame spread pattern from the uniform to the pulsating can be described with temperature difference between the flash point and bulk liquid temperature. For the thin liquid pool this temperature difference is correlated with Ma^−0.5, while for the thick-liquid pool it is correlated with Ma⁻¹. The frequency of pulsation is correlated with We^−1.0 for the thin liquid pool, while it is correlated with We^−1.5 for the thick-liquid pool.     

Binding energies of negatively charged excitons in quantum disks

The Hamiltonian of a negatively charged exciton X⁻ (trion) in a quantum disk with parabolic confinement has been diagonalized to obtain the binding eigenenergy values of the L1 states as a function of the electron-to-hole effective mass ratio and the disk radius. It is found that a negatively charged exciton X⁻ in a quantum disk may have the second bound state with orbital angular momentum L=1 and the triplet state of the two bound electrons.     

Elementary reactions of formyl (HCO) radical studied by laser photolysis—transient absorption spectroscopy

Several elementary reactions of formyl radical of combustion importance were studied using pulsed laser photolysis coupled to transient UV–Vis absorption spectroscopy: HCO → H + CO (1), HCO + HCO → products (2), and HCO + CH₃ → products (3). One-pass UV absorption, multi-pass UV absorption as well as cavity ring-down spectroscopy in the red spectral region were used to monitor temporal profiles of HCO radical. Reaction (1) was studied over the buffer gas (He) pressure range 0.8–100 bar and the temperature range 498–769 K. Reactions (2a), (2b), (2c), (3a) and (3b) as well as the UV absorption spectrum of HCO, were studied at 298 and 588 K, and the buffer gas (He) pressure of 1 bar. Pulsed laser photolysis (308, 320, and 193 nm) of acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, and acetone was used to prepare mixtures of free radicals. The second-order rate constant of reaction (1) obtained from the data at 1 bar is: k₁(He) = (0.8 ± 0.4) × 10⁻¹⁰exp(−(66.0 ± 3.4) kJ mol⁻¹/RT) cm³ molecule⁻¹ s⁻¹. The HCO dissociation rate constants measured in this work are lower than those reported in the previous direct work. The difference is a factor of 2.2 at the highest temperature of the experiments and a factor of 3.5 at the low end. The experimental data indicate pressure dependence of the rate constant of dissociation of formyl radical 1, which was attributed to the early pressure fall-off expected based on the theory of isolated resonances. The UV absorption spectrum of HCO was revised. The maximum absorption cross-section of HCO is (7.3 ± 1.2) × 10⁻¹⁸ cm² molecule⁻¹ at 230 nm (temperature independent within the experimental error). The measured rate constants for reactions (2a), (2b), (2c), (3a) and (3b) are: k₂ = (3.6 ± 0.8) × 10⁻¹¹ cm³ molecule⁻¹ s⁻¹ (298 K); k₃ = (9.3 ± 2.3) × 10⁻¹¹ cm³ molecule⁻¹ s⁻¹(298 and 588 K).     

Torsion-rotation far-infrared spectrum of O-18 methanol

High-resolution Fourier transform spectra have been recorded from 15–470 cm^–1 for the far-infrared trosion-rotation band of O-18 methanol in the vibrational ground state. So far, 57 subbands have been assigned in the 15–220 cm^–1 region for a wide range of rotational and torsional states, and their J-independent origins have been determined to an estimated accuracy of ±0.01 cm^–1. The observed origins were found to deviate in many cases by several tenths of a cm^–1 from the values calculated with the previous molecular parameters. Together with 4 known microwave origins, the new data have been fitted to a model torsion-rotation Hamiltonian in order to refine the set ofb-type molecular constants for the ground state. With the new parameter set, the experimental subband origins are reproduced with an rms error of ±0.02 cm^–1, representing a substantial improvement over the earlier situation. The spectroscopic results have also been of great assistance with our assignments of optically-pumped FIR laser emission in CH₃ ¹⁸OH, in providing FIR data for checking the identification of the IR-pump/FIR-laser transition systems through combination loop relations.     

Laser welding of aluminium alloys 5083 and 6082 under conduction regime

In this work, samples of aluminium alloys 5083-T0 and 6082-T6 have been welded under conduction regime, using a high power diode laser. The influence of experimental variables, as the laser power and the linear welding rate, on the sizes and properties of the butt weld beads has been studied. In addition to measure the depths and widths of the weld beads, their microstructure, microhardness profile and corrosion resistance have been analysed. The results obtained allow one to define the experimental conditions leading to good quality butt welds with higher penetration than those published in the recent literature under conduction regime. Maximum penetration values of 3 and 2.3 mm were obtained for 5083 and 6082, respectively. Additionally, a simple mathematical expression relating the weld depth (d) with the laser power (P) and the processing rate (v) has been proposed: d=(P−bb^′)/(av)−(ba^′)/a, being a, a′, b and b′ constant values for each alloy and under the employed experimental conditions. The values of these coefficients have been estimated from the fitting to the experimental depth values of 5083 and 6082 butt welds generated under conduction regime.     

Optical-field profiles in InxGa1−xN -MQW laser structures

In this paper, we calculated the optical fields for In_xGa_1−xN-multiquantum well (MQW) laser structures. Two different optical cavities are compared, the conventional step separate confinement heterostructure (Step) and a graded-index (GRIN) structure with a parabolic variation of the Al content in the Al_xGa_1−xN guide layers. A comparison is made regarding the confinement factor, near- and far-field patterns. An anomalous behavior for the confinement factor is observed in the structure, and it can be eliminated by choosing an appropriated combination of the layer’s thicknesses forming the waveguide. For Al_xGa_1−xN, an improved expression for the refractive index is presented, which shows better agreement with experimental data than previously reported expressions.     

Development of a novel high speed (electron-mobility) epi-n-ZnO thin films by L-MBE for III–V opto-electronic devices

Intrinsic epitaxial zinc oxide (epi-ZnO) thin films were grown by laser-molecular beam epitaxy (L-MBE), i.e., pulsed laser deposition (PLD) technique using Johnson Matthey “specpure”-grade ZnO pellets. The effects of substrate temperatures on ZnO thin film growth, electrical conductivity (σ), mobility (μ) and carrier concentration (n) were studied. As well as the feasibility of developing high quality conducting oxide thin films was also studied simultaneously. The highest conductivity was found for optimized epi-ZnO thin films is σ=0.06×10³ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻¹ (n-type) (which is almost at the edge of semiconductivity range), carrier density n=0.316×10¹⁹ cm⁻³ and mobility μ=98 cm²/V s. The electrical studies further confirmed the semiconductor characteristics of epi-n-ZnO thin films. The relationship between the optical and electrical properties were also graphically enumerated. The electrical parameter values for the films were calculated, graphically enumerated and tabulated. As a novelty point of view, we have concluded that without doping and annealing, we have obtained optimum electrical conductivity with high optical transparency (95%) for as deposited ZnO thin films using PLD. Also, this is the first time that we have applied PLD made ZnO thin films to iso-, hetero-semiconductor–insulator–semiconductor (SIS) type solar cells as transparent conducting oxide (TCO) window layer. We hope that surely these data be helpful either as a scientific or technical basis in the semiconductor processing.     

Status of the INR experiment on 2β decay of Cd

Measurements of ¹¹⁶Cd double beta decay with help of enriched¹¹⁶CdWO₄ crystal scintillator are in progress in the Solotvina Underground Laboratory. The last part of the exposition with the background rate less than 0.6 counts/y·kg·keV (in the region of interest 2.7–2.9 MeV) is about 19000 hours. The half-life limit T1/2(0ν)≥3.2·10²² y (90% C.L.) is obtained for neutrinoless 2β decay of ¹¹⁶Cd. It corresponds to restrictions on the values of the neutrino mass m_ν≤3.9 eV, right-handed admixtures in weak interaction η≤5.7·10⁻⁸, λ5.0·10⁻⁶ and R-parity violating parameter of minimal supersymmetric standard model ≤1.1·10⁻³. For neutrinoless modes with emission of one and two Majorons, the limits T1/2(0νM1)≥1.2·10²¹ y and T1/2(0νM2)≥2.4·10²⁰ y (90% C.L.) are determined. To advance these results to a level of the limit m_ν≤1–2 eV, the improved set-up with four enriched ¹¹⁶CdWO₄ crystals is in mounting low.     

NOx generation in laser-produced plasma in air as a function of dissipated energy

An experimental study on the production of NO_x as a function of dissipated energy in laser-produced plasma in air is presented. A plasma was produced by focusing a (60–180) mJ, 5 ns, 532 nm pulse from a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser. The results show that for laser energy in the range of 13–99 mJ the laser plasma generates 6.7×10¹⁶ NO_x molecules per joule and 4.6×10¹⁶ NO molecules per joule. An order of magnitude estimate of the NO and NO_x production per unit volume of heated gas based on a simple model show that the NO_x and NO production efficiency in air are about 3×10²² and 2×10²² molecules J⁻¹ m⁻³.     

Analysis of the 2ν3 band of CD3F at 5.06 μm recorded under high resolution

The 2ν₃(A₁) band of ¹²CD₃F near 5.06 μm has been recorded with a resolution of 20–24 × 10⁻³ cm⁻¹. The value of the parameter (α^B − α^A) for this band was found to be very small and, therefore, the K structure of the R(J) and P(J) manifolds was unresolved for J < 15 and only partially resolved for larger J values. The band was analyzed using standard techniques and values for the following constants determined: ν₀ = 1977.178(3) cm⁻¹, B″ = 0.68216(9) cm⁻¹, D″_J = 1.10(30) × 10⁻⁶ cm⁻¹, α^B = (B″ − B′) = 3.086(7) × 10⁻³ cm⁻¹, and β^J = (D″_J − D′_J) = −3.24(11) × 10⁻⁷ cm⁻¹. A value of α^A = (A″ − A′) = 2.90(5) × 10⁻³ cm⁻¹ has been obtained through band contour simulations of the R(J) and P(J) multiplets.     

Lasing characteristics of Rhodamine B and Rhodamine 6G as a sensitizer in sol–gel silica

We report lasing characteristics of Rhodamine B (Rh. B) in sol–gel silica under excitation with frequency-doubled Nd:YAG laser and sensitization with Rhodamine 6G (Rh. 6G). The principle of radiative energy transfer (from Rh. 6G to Rh. B) has been utilized as a longitudinally Rh. 6G laser (at 585 nm)-pumped Rh. B laser process in the same sample. Rh. B offers a high photostable and efficient laser dye in sol–gel silica sensitized with Rh. 6G; 75,000 shots as a laser half-lifetime of the sample and 24% efficiency at pumping intensity 0.1 J/cm² of 532 nm. Wavelength shift occurs from 606 to 630 nm in the Rh. B laser with increasing its concentration from 1×10⁻⁴ to 8×10⁻⁴ M. The measured optical gain for Rh. B sensitized with Rh. 6G in sol–gel silica is higher than that in ethanol. A new effect has been observed; at 1×10⁻⁴ M of Rh. B and 0.5×10⁻⁴ M of Rh. 6G mixture, the emitted color of laser is changed by changing the pump intensity of frequency-doubled Nd:YAG laser.     

Measurement of thickness of a thin film by means of laser interference at many incident angles

An optical method for directly measuring the thickness of a thin transparent film has been proposed by means of multi-wave laser interference at many incident angles, and confirmed experimentally by means of equipment made on an experimental basis. Two methods are available: one can be used when an index of refraction of the film, a wavelength λ, and two successive angles of incidence at which the sinusoidal light intensity has minimum values, are known (Method I), and another can be used without an index of film refraction when three successive angles of incidence and a wavelength are known (Method II). The smallest measurable thickness is 1.43λ for Method I, and 2.5λ for Method II. The largest measurable thickness is about 100λ for both methods. The measurement error by means of numerical calculation is Δh/h−1.01×10⁻², and that obtained experimentally with an angular resolution of incident light of 0.3° is Δh/h7×10⁻² for Method I. The refractive index can also be measured by means of Method II.     

The reaction of CH3 + O2: experimental determination of the rate coefficients for the product channels at high temperatures

The reaction of methyl radicals (CH₃) with molecular oxygen (O₂) has been investigated in high-temperature shock tube experiments. The overall rate coefficient, k₁ = k_1a + k_1b, and individual rate coefficients for the two high-temperature product channels, (1a) producing CH₃O + O and (1b) producing CH₂O + OH, were determined using ultra-lean mixtures of CH₃I and O₂ in Ar/He. Narrow-linewidth UV laser absorption at 306.7 nm was used to measure OH concentrations, for which the normalized rise time is sensitive to the overall rate coefficient k₁ but relatively insensitive to the branching ratio of the individual channels and to secondary reactions. Atomic resonance absorption spectroscopy measurements of O-atoms were used for a direct measurement of channel (1a). Through the combination of measurements using the two different diagnostics, rate coefficient expressions for both channels were determined. Over the temperature range 1590–2430 K, k_1a = 6.08 × 10⁷T^1.54 exp (−14005/T) cm³ mol⁻¹ s⁻¹ and k_1b = 68.6 T^2.86 exp (−4916/T) cm³ mol⁻¹ s⁻¹. The overall rate coefficient is in close agreement with a recent ab initio calculation and one other shock tube study, while comparison of k_1a and k_1b to these and other experimental studies yields mixed results. In contrast to one recent experimental study, reaction (1b) is found to be the dominant channel over the entire experimental temperature range.     

Accuracy analysis of parallel plate interferometer for angular displacement measurement

The measurement accuracy of a parallel-plate interferometer for angular displacement measurement is analyzed. The measurement accuracy of angular displacement is not only related to the accuracy of phase extraction, but also related to initial incident angle, refraction index and thickness of plane-parallel plate as well as wavelength's stability of laser diode, etc. Theoretical analysis and computer simulation show that the measurement error of the angular displacement bears a minimum value when choosing an optimal initial incident angle in a large range. These analytical results serve as a guide in practical measurement. In this interferometer, reducing the refraction index or increasing the thickness of the parallel plate can improve the measurement accuracy; and the relative error of the phase measurement is 3.0×10⁻⁴ corresponding to 1 °C temperature variation. Based on these theoretical and experimental results, the measurement accuracy of the parallel-plate interferometer is up to an order of 10⁻⁸ rad.     

Scattering mechanisms in (Al, Ga)As/GaAs 2DEG structures

We have prepared a large number of high mobility two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) structures, with undoped spacer thicknesses ranging from 9 to 3200Å. For samples with 400Å of (Al, Ga)As Si-doped at 1.3×10¹⁸ cm⁻³, there is a peak in the 4K mobility at spacers of 400–800Å, with a maximum value of 2×10⁶ cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹. Increasing the thickness of the doped (Al, Ga)As to 500Å produced an increase in mobility to 3×10⁶ cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹ for a 400Å space sample. We have compared these results with published analyses of scattering processes in 2DEG structures, and conclude that a combination of ionised impurity and acoustic phonon scattering gives a qualitative explanation of the behaviour, but that the experimental mobility values are generally higher than those predicted theoretically.     

The competition between different degrees of freedom in the structure of the quintet states of negative parity of some even-even Sn isotopes

Levels 2⁺, 3⁻, 1⁻, 2⁻, 3⁻¹, 5⁻ are interpreted as eigenvalues of a boson expanded Hamiltonian containing a shell model term, pairing, and quadrupole-quadrupole and octupole-octupole interaction. The expansion is performed in terms of standard RPA noncollective phonons and the so-called correlated phonons which are related to the RPA collective phonons by a canonical transformation whose parameters are determined so that the energy of the ground state is minimum. The noncollective degrees of freedom are included via an effective Hamiltonian depending on energy. Formalism is applied to ¹¹⁴Sn, ¹¹⁶Sn, and ¹¹⁸Sn. Also, transition probabilities and quadrupole moments are calculated. Results are compared with experimental data as well as with the previous theoretical calculations.     

Doppler-limited dye laser excitation spectroscopy of DNO: Predissociation of DNO

The cw dye laser excitation spectrum of the (110)-(000) and (021)-(000) vibronic bands of the system of DNO was observed between 16530 and 16860 cm⁻¹ with Doppler-limited resolution. A rotational analysis of the two bands gave values for the rotational constants and centrifugal distortion constants. DNO was produced by the pyrolysis method and more than 1200 lines were observed in the two bands. A total of 1112 of these lines could be assigned to 9 and 11 subbands of the (110)-(000) and (021)-(000) bands, respectively. The molecular constants determined reproduce the observed transition frequencies with an average deviation of 0.011 and 0.008 cm⁻¹, respectively. Extensive perturbations in the excited state were found in most of the subbands. “Extra” lines were observed in connection with several of these perturbations. Accurate determination of the dissociation energy has been obtained; D₀ = 17010 ± 10 cm⁻¹.