Geländer Molecules with Orthogonal Joints: Synthesis of Macrocyclic Dimers

Orthogonal joints, understood as connections with an angle of 90°, were introduced in the design of the “Geländer” model compounds 1 and 2 . The banister, consisting of a conjugated carbazole dimer linked by either 1,3-butadiyne ( 2 ) or a single thiophene ( 1 ), wraps around an axis composed of a phthalimide dimer due to the dimensional mismatch of both subunits, which are interconnected by phenylene rungs. The “Geländer” structure was assembled from a monomer comprising the 1,4-diaminobenzene rung with one amino substituent as part of a 4-bromo phthalimide subunit forming the orthogonal junction to the axis, and the other as part of a masked 2-ethynyl carbazole as orthogonal joint to the banister. The macrocycle was obtained by two sequential homocoupling steps. A first dimerization by a reductive homocoupling assembled the axis, while an oxidative acetylene coupling served as ring-closing reaction. The formed butadiyne was further derivatized to a thiophene, rendering all carbons of the model compound sp² hybridized. Both helical structures were fully characterized and chirally resolved. Assignment of the enantiomers was achieved by simulation of chiroptical properties and enantiopure synthesis.     

“Geländer” macrocycles: Synthesis,chirality and racemisation barriers

A new class of axially-chiral o,o′-bridged biphenyls containing etheroxime chains was obtained in good yields by the macrocyclisation reaction of o,o′-diformylbiphenyl dioxime with several ditosylated or dibrominated reagents. In all cases the enantiomers of the compounds were separated by HPLC using a chiral column (Chiralpack IC) and the stability of the enantiomers (barriers of racemisation) was investigated employing chiral HPLC or chiral Dynamic HPLC techniques. A slight influence on the barrier to rotation was noticed when the enantiomerisation was performed in the presence of suitable alkali cations.     

An improved synthesis of the C42–C52 segment of ciguatoxin 3C

In our previously reported method for the construction of the IJKLM-ring of ciguatoxin 3C (CTX3C), the lengthy synthetic process for the intermediate C42–C52 (L-ring) segment was problematic. Therefore, a new and improved procedure for the C42–C52 segment, having modified protecting groups, was developed. The new route includes a chirality transferring Ireland-Claisen rearrangement for the construction of the vicinal dimethyl branching at C47–48, a one-pot cyclization process for the establishment of the stereocenters at C45 and C46 as well as the γ-hydroxy δ-lactone framework corresponding to the L-ring, and Brown’s asymmetric crotylboration for the installation of the stereocenters at C43 and C44. The new C42–C52 segment was successfully coupled with the previously reported C32–C41 (I-ring) segment to produce the IJKLM-ring.     

Indium triflate and ionic liquid-mediated Friedländer synthesis of 2-acylquinolines

Friedländer synthesis of 2-acylquinolines from the reaction of symmetrical and unsymmetrical 1,2-diketones with 2-aminoarylketones in the presence of indium triflate (In(OTf)₃) and ionic liquid gives quantitative yields. Once the reaction was completed, the catalysts can be recovered and subsequently run for next cycles. Results obtained from theoretical studies have been more strengthened by FT-IR, FT-NMR chemical shifts, and structural parameters which were attained with B3LYP/6-31G(d,p) level of theory and the related results were demonstrated with the experimental interpretations.     

An “All-In-One” Pharmacophoric Architecture for the Discovery of Potential Broad-Spectrum Anti-Flavivirus Drugs

A precipitous increase in the number of flaviviral infections has been noted over the last 5 years. Despite these outbreaks, treatment protocols for infected individuals remain ambiguous. Numerous studies have identified NITD008 as a potent flavivirus inhibitor; however, clinical testing was dismissed due to undesirable toxic effects. The binding landscape of NITD008 in complex with five detrimental flaviviruses at the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase active sites was explored. An “all-in-one” pharmacophore model was created for the design of small molecules that may inhibit a broad spectrum of flaviviruses. This pharmacophore model approach serves as a robust cornerstone, thus assisting medicinal experts in the composition of multifunctional inhibitors that will eliminate cross-resistance and toxicity and enhance patient adherence.     

Transition-Metal-Free C(sp2)–C(sp2) Cross-Coupling of Diazo Quinones with Catechol Boronic Esters

A transition-metal-free C(sp²)−C(sp²) bond formation reaction by the cross-coupling of diazo quinones with catechol boronic esters was developed. With this protocol, a variety of biaryls and alkenyl phenols were obtained in good to high yields under mild conditions. The reaction tolerates various functionalities and is applicable to the derivatization of pharmaceuticals and natural products. The synthetic utility of the method was demonstrated by the short synthesis of multi-substituted triphenylenes and three bioactive natural products, honokiol, moracin M, and stemofuran A. Mechanistic studies and density functional theory (DFT) calculations revealed that the reaction involves attack of the boronic ester by a singlet quinone carbene followed by a 1,2-rearrangement through a stepwise mechanism.     

Gold-Catalyzed C(sp2)−C(sp) Coupling by Alkynylation through Oxidative Addition of Bromoalkynes

A gold(I)-catalyzed cascade cyclization–alkynylation of allenoates using alkynyl bromide to generate β-alkynyl-γ-butenolides was investigated. Whereas alkynyl iodides afforded significant amounts of the homo-coupling of two lactone units, alkynyl bromides led to a selective reaction, and a broad functional group tolerance was observed. Under the optimized reaction conditions, it was possible to directly synthesize a large range of β-alkynyl-γ-butenolides in moderate to good yields without the need for any external oxidant.     

Cross-Electrophile C(sp2)−Si Coupling of Vinyl Chlorosilanes

The cross-electrophile coupling has become a powerful tool for C−C bond formation, but its potential for forging the C−Si bond remains unexplored. Here we report a cross-electrophile Csp²-Si coupling reaction of vinyl/aryl electrophiles with vinyl chlorosilanes. This new protocol offers an approach for facile and precise synthesis of organosilanes with high molecular diversity and complexity from readily available materials. The reaction proceeds under mild and non-basic conditions, demonstrating a high step economy, broad substrate scope, wide functionality tolerance, and easy scalability. The synthetic utility of the method is shown by its efficient accessing of silicon bioisosteres, the design of new BCB-monomers, and studies on the Hiyama cross-coupling of vinylsilane products.     

Palladium-Catalyzed Site-Selective C(sp2)−H Acetoxylation of Tyrosine-Containing Peptides

A Pd-catalyzed C(sp²)−H acetoxylation of Tyr-containing peptides is described. The method relies on the use of a removable 2-pyridyloxy group as directing group and is distinguished by its reliable scalability and easily tuned regioselectivity to perform mono- and diacetoxylation reactions. Remarkably, the assembly of L–DOPA peptidomimetics is beyond reach upon cleavage of the directing group.     

Challenges in C–C bond formation through direct transformations of sp2 C–H bonds

In the past several decades, organic chemists have made significant contributions to approach direct C–H transformations. However, limited substrate scope and reaction classifications, harsh condition, and the use of noble and toxic late transition-metal catalysts typically with high loadings clogged its applications. This article summarizes our recent efforts to explore new reaction types and develop new catalytic systems in this field, which may open a new channel to consider organic synthesis from easily available chemicals.     

Revealing Silylation of C(sp2)/C(sp3)–H Bonds in Arylphosphines by Ruthenium Catalysis

The first aromatic C−H silylation between arylphosphines and hydrosilanes enabled by a ruthenium complex has been developed. The excellent ortho-selectivity results from a four-membered metallacyclic intermediate involving phosphorus chelation. The developed system can be extended to the benzylic C−H silylation of arylphosphines. Diverse silylated arylphosphines are produced, exhibiting broad functional group compatibility. Further functionalization of the products under mild conditions renders the formed compounds useful building blocks.     

Substrate-Mediator Duality of 1,4-Dicyanobenzene in Electrochemical C(sp2)−C(sp3) Bond Formation with Alkyl Bromides

Electrochemical approaches to form C(sp²)−C(sp³) bonds have focused on coupling C(sp³) electrophiles that form stabilized carbon-centered radicals upon reduction or oxidation. Whereas alkyl bromides are desirable C(sp³) coupling partners owing to their availability and cost-effectiveness, their tendency to undergo radical-radical homocoupling makes them challenging substrates for electroreductive cross-coupling. Herein, we disclose a metal-free regioselective cross-coupling of 1,4-dicyanobenzene, a useful precursor to aromatic nitriles, and alkyl bromides. Alkyl bromide reduction is mediated directly by 1,4-dicyanobenzene radical anions, leading to negligible homocoupling and high cross-selectivity to form 1,4-alkyl cyanobenzenes. The cross-coupling scheme is compatible with oxidatively sensitive and acidic functional groups such as amines and alcohols, which have proven difficult to incorporate in alternative electrochemical approaches using carboxylic acids as C(sp³) precursors.     

A Three-Component Arene Difunctionalization: Merger of C(sp3)/(sp2)−H Bond Addition

A tandem three-component C−H bond addition involving the activation of an inert C(sp³)−H bond is reported. The process enables the direct regioselective synthesis of 1,2-difunctionalized arenes with the formation of C(sp³)− and C(sp²)−C(arene) bonds. 2-Iodobenzoic acid derivatives behave as masked bifunctional reagent (BFR) and react with 2-pyridyl-methyl sulfoximine (MPyS) protected aliphatic acids bearing α,α-disubstituted groups, and alkenes to produce β-aryl-δ-alkenyl amide derivatives in a single operation. The transformation involves Pd(II)/Pd(IV) and Pd(II)/Pd(0) catalytic systems. Detailed mechanistic studies, including density functional theory (DFT) calculations, reveal the formation of large T-shaped palladacycles and the onset of a 1,2-palladium migration via decarboxylation.     

Dirhodium(II)-Catalyzed C(sp2)−H Azidation of Benzaldehydes

Multiple steps are needed to achieve the C−H functional of aromatic aldehyde, since the C−H functional reaction usually occurs preferentially at the aldehydic C−H bond over the aryl C−H bond. We report an efficient azidation method mediated by dirhodium(II) catalysts to achieve the direct aryl azidation of aromatic aldehydes avoiding the simultaneous use of protected aldehydes and prefunctionalized arenes. The regioselectivity of this method is similar to those of typical aromatic electrophilic substitution reactions. The resulting azidobenzaldehyde products are versatile building blocks or precursors for the synthesis of many biologically active compounds. The mechanism studies indicate that the one-electron oxidative intermediate Rh₂^(II,III)N₃ is responsible for the azide transfer.     

Synthesis of α-Quaternary β-Lactams via Copper-Catalyzed Enantioconvergent Radical C(sp3)−C(sp2) Cross-Coupling with Organoboronate Esters

The copper-catalyzed enantioconvergent radical C(sp³)−C(sp²) cross-coupling of tertiary α-bromo-β-lactams with organoboronate esters could provide the synthetically valuable α-quaternary β-lactams. The challenge arises mainly from the construction of sterically congested quaternary stereocenters between the tertiary alkyl radicals and chiral copper(II) species. Herein, we describe our success in achieving such transformations through the utilization of a copper/hemilabile N,N,N-ligand catalyst to forge the sterically congested chiral C(sp³)−C(sp²) bond via a single-electron reduction/transmetalation/bond formation catalytic cycle. The synthetic potential of this approach is shown in the straightforward conversion of the corresponding products into many valuable building blocks. We hope that the developed catalytic cycle would open up new vistas for more enantioconvergent cross-coupling reactions.     

Direct Synthesis of Disubstituted 3-Isoquinolinone Derivatives through the Construction of C−N,C=O,and C(sp2)−C(sp3) Bonds under Transition-Metal-Free Conditions

The efficient three-component cascade coupling reaction of 3-haloisoquinolines, haloalkanes, and sp³-carbon nucleophiles (acetophenone or nitromethane) led to a series of structurally novel 1,2-disubstituted-3-isoquinolinones through the formation of C(sp³)−C(sp²), C−N, and C=O bonds. The NaOAc-promoted reaction described in this work is simple to operate, environment friendly, and highly selective.     

Direct Carbo-Acylation Reactions of 2-Arylpyridines with α-Diketones via Pd-Catalyzed C-H Activation and Selective C(sp2)-C(sp2) Cleavage

An efficient carbo-acylation reaction of 2-arylpyridines with α-diketones via Pd-catalyzed C-H bond activation and C-C bond cleavage in the presence of TBHP was developed that generated aryl ketones in good yields. The highly selective formation of aryl ketones was observed when 2-arylpyridines reacted with aromatic/aliphatic α-diketones.