Radical protection by sunscreens in the infrared spectral range

One essential reason for skin ageing is the formation of free radicals by excessive or unprotected sun exposure. Recently, free radical generation in skin has been shown to appear not only after irradiation in the UV wavelength range but also in the infrared (IR) spectral range. Sunscreens are known to protect against radicals generated by UV radiation; however, no data exist for those generated by IR radiation. This paper has investigated four different, commercially available sunscreens and one COLIPA standard with regard to radical formation in the skin after IR irradiation, using electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. The use of sunscreens has led to reduced amounts of radicals compared to untreated skin. Furthermore, absorption and scattering properties and the radical protection factor of the formulations were determined to investigate their influence on the radical protection of the skin. None of these formulations contained an optical absorber in the IR range. The protection efficiency of the sunscreens was shown as being induced by the high scattering properties of the sunscreens, as well as the antioxidants contained in the formulations.     

卤素离子对TiO2薄膜光致亲水性的影响

将卤化钾盐KX(X＝I、Br、Cl、F)分别引入至TiO₂溶胶中, 利用提拉法在载玻片上制得含有卤素离子的TiO₂-X薄膜样片, 通过测试样片紫外光照下水滴接触角的变化, 考察了不同浓度的KI以及不同卤素离子对TiO₂薄膜光致亲水性能的影响, 并通过测试光照后的亲水薄膜样片暗处放置不同时间后接触角的变化, 比较了含TiO₂-I和TiO₂-F薄膜样片亲水性能的持久性. 结果表明, 适量的KI有助于提高TiO2薄膜的光致亲水性, 当TiO₂溶胶中KI浓度为1.0×10^-5 mol•L^-1时, 其所制得TiO₂薄膜的光致亲水性最好, 继续增大KI浓度时, 薄膜的光致亲水性逐步下降, 当KI浓度达1.0×10^-2 mol•L^-1时, 其光致亲水性较纯TiO₂薄膜差；同时, 适量的KBr、KCl加入也有助于提高TiO₂薄膜的光致亲水性, 且随KI＞KBr＞KCl的顺序逐渐减弱, 但KF的加入降低了薄膜的光致亲水性；另外, 卤素离子的加入还有助于提高TiO₂薄膜亲水性能的持久性, 且KF＞KI. 分析认为, 卤素离子对TiO₂薄膜光致亲水性的影响与其给电子或捕获光致电子作用有关, 并提出了其作用模型, 而卤素离子与亲水基团(羟基)的氢键作用是使KX-TiO₂薄膜能够延长亲水性时间的原因.     

Pulse radiolysis study of reactions of alkyl and alkylperoxy radicals originating from methyl tert-butyl ether in the gas phase

UV spectra and kinetics for the reactions of alkyl and alkylperoxy radicals from methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) were studied in 1 atm of SF₆ by the pulse radiolysis-UV absorption technique. UV spectra for the radical mixtures were quantified from 215 to 340 nm. At 240 nm. σ_R = (2.6 ± 0.4) × 10⁻¹⁸ cm² molecule⁻¹ and σ_RO2 = (4.1 ± 0.6) × 10⁻¹⁸ cm² molecule⁻¹ (base e). The rate constant for the self-reaction of the alkyl radicals is (2.5 ± 1.1) × 10⁻¹¹ cm³ molecule⁻¹ s⁻¹. The rate constants for reaction of the alkyl radicals with molecular oxygen and the alkylperoxy radicals with NO and NO₂ are (9.1 ± 1.5) × 10⁻¹³, (4.3 ± 1.6) × 10⁻¹² and (1.2 ± 0.3) × 10⁻¹¹ cm³ molecule⁻¹ s⁻¹, respectively. The rate constants given above refer to reaction at the tert-butyl side of the molecule.     

EPR study of the radicals formed upon UV irradiation of ceria-based photocatalysts

EPR measurements reveal remarkable differences on the type of radicals produced after UV illumination of TiO₂, CeO₂ and 0.8% CeO₂/TiO₂ photocatalysts. Photoactivation of the TiO₂ sample in vacuum results in the formation of Ti⁴⁺–O⁻ species and a small amount of Ti³⁺ centers. In the presence of adsorbed oxygen, irradiation of this material also generates Ti⁴⁺–O₃⁻ radicals. In the case of the CeO₂/TiO₂ catalyst, the ceria component is present in a highly dispersed state, as indicated by XRD and UV–Vis diffuse reflectance spectra (DRS) results. Accordingly, the only type of Ce⁴⁺–O₂⁻ adducts generated on the CeO₂/TiO₂ sample are indicative of the presence of two-dimensional patches of ceria on the anatase surface. On the other hand, photoactivation of the CeO₂/TiO₂ sample in the presence of oxygen also leads to the formation of some Ti⁴⁺–O⁻ and Ti³⁺ centers. In the case of the CeO₂ sample, superoxide radicals are observed upon irradiation in vacuum and subsequent oxygen adsorption. Further irradiation of this material in the presence of oxygen increases the amount of Ce⁴⁺–O₂⁻ radicals and simultaneously generates new species, which are tentatively assigned to Ce⁴⁺–O₂H radicals. Photocatalytic activity was tested for toluene oxidation, and the results obtained show that the photodegradation rate is slightly lower for CeO₂/TiO₂ than for the TiO₂ sample. However, the selectivity towards benzaldehyde (6–13%) is comparable for both materials. In the case of CeO₂, the photo-oxidation rate is an order of magnitude lower than for TiO₂, although mineralization of toluene is almost complete. Photoactivity results are discussed in connection with the characteristics of the radicals observed.     

Anomalous excimer formation of a pyrenyl derivative having a mesogen group of alkoxycyanobiphenyl in its smectic mesophase

The direct photolysis of 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) (ABTS) in aqueous solution was investigated under monochromatic ultraviolet (UV) irradiation at 254 nm. ABTS was found to be directly photolyzed by UV irradiation to yield the one-electron oxidized radical, ABTS⁺, which is a blue-green colored persistent radical species that has strong visible absorption bands. The photochemical production of ABTS⁺ was strongly dependent on the solution pH and the presence of dissolved oxygen. The presence of dissolved oxygen increased the quantum yields at pH 3, whereas it inhibited the production of ABTS⁺ at pH 6.5. Spectrophotometric and spectrofluorometric data indicated that ABTS photolysis may occur as a result of the transfer of one-electron between the singlet excited state and the ground state of ABTS. Observations made during UV/H₂O₂ experiments with ABTS suggested that the dependence of the photoloysis of ABTS on the solution pH and the presence of dissolved oxygen is related to the role of the hydroperoxyl/superoxide radical (HO₂/O₂⁻), which appears to be formed via a secondary reaction of the reduced intermediate of ABTS with dissolved oxygen. The proposed photolytic reactions were supported by the observed stoichiometry between the amount of ABTS⁺ radicals produced and the amount of ABTS molecules decomposed.     

Photochemical Reactions Involved in the Phototoxicity of the Anticonvulsant and Antidepressant Drug Lamotrigine (Lamictal®)

Lamotrigine (LTG) [3,5-diamino-6-(2,3-dichlorophenyl)-1,2,4-triazine], an anticonvulsant and antidepressant drug Lamictal^®, produces a (photo)toxic response in some patients. LTG absorbs UV light, generating singlet oxygen (¹O₂) with a quantum yield of 0.22 in CH₂Cl₂, 0.11 in MeCN and 0.01 in D₂O. A small production of superoxide radical anion was also detected in acetonitrile. Thus, LTG is a moderate photosensitizer producing phototoxicity and oxidizing linoleic acid. LTG is a weak ¹O₂ quencher ( k _q = 3.2 × 10⁵  m ⁻¹ s⁻¹ in MeCN), but its photodecomposition products in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) quenched ¹O₂ very efficiently. Upon intense UV irradiation from a xenon lamp, LTG was photobleached rapidly in DMSO and slowly in acetonitrile, alcohol and water. The rate increased significantly when laser pulses at 266 nm were employed. The photobleaching products generated ¹O₂ twice as strongly as LTG. Photobleaching was usually accompanied by the release of chloride anions, which increased in the presence of ascorbic acid. This suggests the formation of aryl radicals via dechlorination, a process which may be responsible for the photoallergic response observed in some patients. Our results demonstrate that LTG is a moderate generator of ¹O₂ prone to photodechlorination, especially in a reducing environment, which can contribute to the reported phototoxicity of LTG.     

SUNSCREENS WITH BROAD-SPECTRUM ABSORPTION DECREASE THE trans TO cis PHOTOISOMERIZATION OF UROCANIC ACID IN THE HUMAN stratum corneum AFTER MULTIPLE UV LIGHT EXPOSURES

Abstract The trans to cis photoisomerization of urocanic acid (UCA) in skin is considered to play an important role in the mechanism of immunosuppression. We have investigated the effects of skin type and various sunscreens with low sun protection factor (SPF) on the UV-induced cis -UCA formation in human skin after exposure to artificial IJV light. The rate of cis -UCA formation depends little on the skin type and is reduced by topical application of sunscreens. The rate of cis -UCA formation decreases with increasing SPF and only broad-spectrum, highly protective sunscreens offer protection against the UV-induced formation of cis -UCA, which accumulates in the stratum corneum after multiple UV exposures. A theoretical approach to estimate the distribution of cis -UCA after irradiation indicates that this compound may diffuse into the deeper layers of the epidermis with D ∼ 10⁻¹⁷ m²/s, and that its elimination from the stratum corneum is mainly due to desquamation.     

OH reactions with aliphatic alcohols: evaluation of kinetics by direct optical absorption measurement. A pulse radiolysis study

The kinetics of the reactions of hydroxyl radicals with aliphatic alcohols in aqueous solution were studied using pulse radiolysis. Based on the optical absorption observed in the UV region, the rate constants for the reaction of hydroxyl radicals with methanol, ethanol, 2-propanol and tert-butyl alcohol were determined to be 9.0×10⁸, 2.2×10⁹, 2.0×10⁹ and 6.2×10⁸ dm³ mol⁻¹ s⁻¹, respectively. The values obtained here by direct observation of the alcohol radicals basically confirm the values which were earlier determined indirectly by competition.     

ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT-INDUCED FREE RADICAL FORMATION IN SKIN: AN ELECTRON PARAMAGNETIC RESONANCE STUDY

It has been suggested that ultraviolet light induces free radical formation in skin, leading to photoaging and cancer. We have demonstrated by electron paramagnetic resonance that the ascorbate free radical is naturally present in unexposed skin at a very low steady state level. When a section of SKH-1 hairless mouse skin in an EPR cavity is exposed to UV light (4,500 J m⁻²−1, Xe lamp, 305 nm cutoff and IR filters), the ascorbate free radical signal intensity increases. These results indicate that UV light increases free radical oxidative stress, consistent with ascorbate's role as the terminal, small-molecule antioxidant. The initial radicals produced by UV light would have very short lifetimes at room temperature; thus, we have applied EPR spin trapping techniques to detect these radicals. Using α-[4-pyridyl 1-oxide]-N- tert -butyl nitrone (POBN), we have for the first time spin trapped a UV light-produced carbon-centered free radical from intact skin. The EPR spectra exhibited hyperfine splittings that are characteristic of POBN/alkyl radicals, a^N= 15.56 G and a^H= 2.70 G, possibly generated from membrane lipids as a result of β-scission of lipid alkoxyl radicals. Iron can act as a catalyst for free radical oxidative reactions; chronic exposure of skin to UV radiation causes increased iron deposition. Using our spin trapping system, we have shown that topical application of the iron-chelator, Desferal, to a section of skin reduces the UV light-induced POBN adduct radical signal. These results provide direct evidence for free radical generation and a role for iron in UV light-induced dermatopathology. We suggest that iron chelators can serve as photoprotective agents by preventing these oxidations.     

Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization (REMPI) spectroscopy of photolytically generated hot CF radicals

In this paper, we investigate the rotationally resolved spectra of hot CF radicals generated after IR multiphoton dissociation (IRMPD) of CFCl₃ or CF₂Cl₂ and subsequent UV photodissociation. It is shown that these conditions are advantageous for the spectroscopy of transitions involving high rotational quantum numbers and hot bands. Thus molecular constants of CF for the first vibrationally excited state of the electronic ground state (A_v=77.1 cm⁻¹, B_v=1.389 cm⁻¹, D_v=6.570×10⁻⁶ cm⁻¹) are determined for the first time or are calculated more accurately. The spectroscopic method used was resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization (REMPI) spectroscopy.     

LONG WAVELENGTH UV RADIATION AFFECTS CHEMILUMINESCENCE OF HUMAN POLYMORPHONUCLEAR LEUCOCYTES

Abstract— Luminol-enhanced chemiluminescence in suspensions of human polymorphonuclear leucocytes stimulated with the chemotactic oligopeptide formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine was increased by exposure of the cells to long wavelength UV radiation (mainly320–400 nm). Leucocytes treated with 0.3 × 10⁴ J m^-2 of UV responded with doubled peak values, and 4 × 10⁴ J m^-2 lead to a five-fold increase in peak chemiluminescence, as compared with non-exposed cells. Supernatants isolated from irradiated leucocytes contained increased amounts of both myeloperoxidase and lactate dehydrogenase and showed higher chemiluminescence values, when compared with supernatants from sham-irradiated cells. The results suggest that leucocyte degranulation contributes to the inflammatory properties of long wavelength UV.     

EFFECTS OF UV IRRADIATION ON A LIVING SKIN EQUIVALENT

Abstract— The Living Skin Equivalent (LSE™) is an organotypic coculture composed of human dermal fibroblasts interspersed in a collagen-containing matrix and overlaid with human keratinocytes forming a stratified epidermis. The LSE has a dry, air-exposed epidermal surface suitable for the application of oils, creams and emulsions. These features suggested its feasibility as an in vitro skin model for studying the protective effects of sunscreens. Using the thiazolyl blue (MTT) conversion assay as a measure of mitochondrial function, the extent of cytotoxicity induced by various doses of UV-R (280–400 nm) or UV-A (320–400 nm) was evaluated in the LSE. The doses of UV radiation that caused 50% reductions in MTT conversion (UV-R₅₀ or UV-A₅₀) in different lots of LSE were 0.053 ± 0.021 J/cm² (n = 29) and 11.6 ± 4.9 J/cm² (n = 17) for UV-R and UV-A, respectively. The protective effects of an 8% homosylate standard and of five UV-A sunscreens, topically applied to the LSE, were determined and compared with their reported protection factors in human skin. Morphological changes and the release of proinflammatory mediators (interleukin-1-α, tumor necrosis factor-α and prostaglandin E2) implicated in UV-induced erythema were also demonstrated in the LSE exposed to UV-A or UV-B. The data suggest that the LSE can be used for studying the effects of U V radiation on skin and may have utility for assessing the efficacy of certain sunscreens against UV-B and UV-A.     

PULSE RADIOLYSIS STUDIES IN MODEL LIPID SYSTEMS: FORMATION AND BEHAVIOR OF PEROXY RADICALS IN FATTY ACIDS

Abstract— Radiolytic formation and peroxidation of fatty acid radicals have been investigated by pulse radiolysis techniques in oleate, linoleate, linolenate and arachidonate systems. A strong absorption band at 280 nm associated with conjugated radicals, R_conj, formed in polyunsaturated fatty acid moieties has been used as a probe for kinetic processes occurring at doubly allylic sites in the hydrocarbon chain. Formation of R_conj by O^- has been found to be more efficient than the less selective OH radical. Peroxidation of R_conj is shown to be somewhat slower, ( k _R+ O₂˜ 3 × 10⁸ M ^-1 s^-1), than O₂ reactions with radicals in oleate ( k _R+ O₂= 1 × 10⁹ M ^-1 s^-1). Peroxy radicals generated in these reactions disappear slowly by essentially second order processes (2 k RO₁˜ 10⁷ M ^-1 s^-1). The superoxide radical, O^-₂, shows little if any reactivity towards 0.01 M linolenate or arachidonate over periods of 20 s.     

SPECTROSCOPIC STUDIES OF CUTANEOUS PHOTOSENSITIZING AGENTS—II. SPIN TRAPPING OF PHOTOLYSIS PRODUCTS FROM SULFANILAMIDE AND 4-AMINOBENZOIC ACID USING 5,5-DIMETHYL-1-PYRROLINE-1-OXIDE

Abstract— The photodecomposition of sulfanilamide, 4-aminobenzoic acid and related analogs in aqueous solution has been studied with the aid of spin traps 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-1-oxide (DMPO) and CH₃NO₂ as well as by direct electron spin resonance techniques. The NH₂ radical was trapped by DMPO during the photolysis of aqueous solutions of sulfanilamide with a Xe arc lamp. Studies with [¹⁵N¹]-sulfanilamide indicated that the NH₂ radical was generated by homolytic fission of the sulfur-nitrogen bond. Under the same conditions DMPO trapped the H and SO⁻₃ radicals during photolysis of sulfanic acid. Direct photolysis of sulfanilamide, sulfanilic acid and Na₂SO₃ in the absence of any spin trap yielded the SO⁻³ radical. Photolysis of 4-aminobenzoic acid at pH 7 gave the H radical which was trapped by DMPO. At low pH values OH and C₆H₄COOH radicals were generated during the photolysis of 4-aminobenzoic acid. No e⁻_aq were trapped by CH₃NO₂ when acid (pH 4) and neutral aqueous solutions of sulfanilamide or 4-aminobenzoic acid were photoirradiated. The mechanism of formation of known photoproducts from the free radicals generated by sulfanilamide and 4-aminobenzoic acid during irradiation are discussed. The free radicals generated by these agents may play an important role in their phototoxic and photoallergic effects.     

PHOTOLYSIS OF MELANIN PRECURSORS: FORMATION OF SEMIQUINONE RADICALS AND THEIR COMPLEXATION WITH DIAMAGNETIC METAL IONS

Abstract— Semiquinone free radicals have been generated by the UV photolysis of aqueous solutions of melanin precursors (catechols and catecholamines) and characterized by electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy. Hyperfine parameters of the semiquinones are sensitive to the nature of the substituents on the aromatic ring, reflecting (i) the ionization state of the substituent; (ii) restricted rotation of methylene protons; and (iii) the presence of a chiral carbon center. In the presence of complexing metal ions (Zn²⁺, Cd²⁺) the semiquinones form chelate complexes whose ESR spectra differ from those of the uncomplexed radicals. Satellite peaks demonstrating hyperfine coupling to metal isotopes (⁶⁷Zn, ¹¹¹Cd and ¹¹³Cd) present in natural abundance were detected in several instances. Concentrations of metal complexes are much higher than those of the uncomplexed radicals, suggesting that diamagnetic metal ions may be useful in identifying the presence of semiquinone radicals of this kind in various systems.     

Measurements of the Protective Effect of Topically Applied Sunscreens using in vitro Three-dimensional Dermal and Skin Equivalents

Abstract— For preventing or minimizing acute and chronic skin damage caused by UV radiation, the use of sunscreens is probably the most important measure. To screen the protective efficacy of new sunscreen molecules or formulations against UV rays, we evaluated as in vitro testing methods the use of two three-dimensional models, a dermal equivalent (DE) and a skin equivalent (SE). The DE is composed of a porous collagen-glycosaminoglycans-chitosan matrix populated by normal human fibroblasts. The SE is comprised of a fully differentiated epidermis realized by seeding keratinocytes onto the DE. In this study, we demonstrated that the DE and SE models react to the deleterious effects of UVA and UVB. Then, we extended our research to the evaluation of their usefulness for photoprotection trials. Sunscreen agents (Euso-lex 8020 and 6300) and commercially available sunscreens (chemical and physical filter formulations) that protect the skin against either UVA or UVB were evaluated. The tested products were applied (n = 6) topically (10 μL) and incubated for 30 min prior to irradiation over a range of UVA (0-50 J/cm²) or UVB (0-5 J/cm²). The photoprotection provided by the tested sunscreen molecules and formulations was evaluated by measurement of residual cellular viability 24 h postirradiation using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetra-zolium bromide (MTT) test and assessment of the inflammation response by interleukin-la release assay. When sunscreens were applied prior to UV exposure, a higher residual cellular viability versus control was obtained, demonstrating the photoprotective effects of the tested products. These in vitro models could be used for screening tests to evaluate the protective effects of sunscreen molecules and formulations, especially for UVA trials because there is a lack of consensus for an in vivo method.     

乙酸钠、草酸钠、酒石酸钾在三氧化钨-水体系中光生自由基的研究

当分散在溶液中的TiO₂、znO、CdS、WO₃等多相体系受到光照时,固态的半导体物质吸收光子后会产生电子-空穴对,它们在半导体界面上与周围介质反应,可能以各种方式进行电荷转移而形成不同的活泼中间体,引起人们对发生在半导体粉末上的光化学过程的关注。     

Synthesis, Photoluminescence and Photocatalytic Performance of BiPO4 with Different Phase Structures

Three kinds of crystal phase BiPO₄(HP, LTBP, and HTBP) were selectively synthesized by controlling the preparation conditions. Structures of the three samples are all constructed by PO₄ and BiO₈ polyhedra but with different geometric structures. Detailed characterization was carried out by X-ray diffraction(XRD), scanning eletron microscopy(SEM) and Raman, UV-Vis, and luminescence spectrometries. Three samples exhibit huge distinctions in their photoluminescence(PL) lifetime: 0.68, 162 and 160 μs for HP, LTBP, and HTBP, respectively. More interesting, an outstanding photocatalytic activity is observed for as-prepared LTBP nanorod, which shows even higher activity for the degradation of MB solution than P25. In addition, experiments were carried out to clarify the role of hydroxyl (^·OH) and superoxide radicals(O₂^·) played in photocatalytic process and it was found O₂^· was the main active species in BiPO₄ photocatalysts. Further comparison of structural and photocatalytic properties of the three samples finds that structure distortion is contributed to their property difference. A correlation was found between photocatalytic performance and the distortion of BiO₈ dodecahedra. The internal field generated by the distortion of BiO₈ dodecahedra was believed advantageous for the separation of electron and hole, which was in favor of the improvement of photocatalytic activity. This correlation may help to design other photocatalysts with high activity.     

含铁离子的XO/HX体系对糖类分子氧化作用的ESR研究

用自旋俘获方法直接检测含铁的黄嘌呤氧化酶/次黄嘌呤体系中由糖产生的自由基,发现该体系中除了产生羟基自由基外,还产生烷(氧)基自由基,且糖的浓度越高,体系中产生的烷(氧)基自由基也越多.这表明含铁的黄嘌呤氧化酶/次黄嘌呤体系对糖类分子有氧化作用,且糖的浓度越高,氧化作用越强,对机体的损伤越大.应用含硒抗体酶可有效清除烷(氧)基自由基,显示出很强的抗氧化能力.     

γ-Fe2O3/Ag/TiO2的制备与抗菌性能

采用两步法合成了γ-Fe₂O₃/Ag/TiO₂复合光催化剂, 以大肠埃希氏菌(E. coli)为目标菌, 对数去除率为评价指标评价了催化剂的抗菌性能, 优化了催化剂的最佳制备参数. 通过X射线衍射、 扫描电子显微镜、 X射线光电子能谱和紫外-可见漫反射光谱等手段对催化剂进行了表征. 结果表明, 当Ti/Ag摩尔比为1:0.05, 煅烧时间为3 h, 煅烧温度为350 ℃时, γ-Fe₂O₃/Ag/TiO₂表现出最佳抗菌活性. 复合催化剂具有介孔结构, 比表面积为89.1 m²/g; 光吸收边界达690 nm, 有良好的可见光响应能力; 磁性较强, 在水处理应用中可有效分离和重复使用. 反应条件不受光源限制, 在有/无光照下均具有良好的抗菌活性, 且太阳光辐照下对E. coli的对数去除率可达6.28.