Hard photons and neutral pions as probes of hot and dense nuclear matter

The dynamics of heavy-ion collisions is studied in an energy domain in the vicinity of the Fermi energy. The early history of the collision is analyzed from the theoretical and experimental point of view in which the message conveyed by bremsstrahlung photons and neutral pions is exploited. The Boltzmann-Uehling-Uhlenbeck model and the Dubna Cascade Model, both based on similar principles but each adopting different computation technics, are briefly described and their respective predictions are discussed. In particular the emission pattern of bremsstrahlung photons is discussed. The photon production has been measured in the systems ⁸⁶Kr+⁵⁸Ni at 60A MeV, ¹⁸¹Ta+¹⁹⁷Au at 40A MeV and ²⁰⁸Pb+¹⁹⁷Au at 30A MeV and energy spectra, angular distributions and two-photon correlations have been analyzed. We find that bremsstrahlung photons are emitted from two distinct sources that can be correlated with nuclear-matter density oscillations. The properties of photon emission are discussed in terms of collective properties of nuclear matter. The high energy tail of the photon spectrum is interpreted by π⁰ and Δ decay but predominantly by radiative capture of pions. The π⁰ absorption in the nuclear medium is further analyzed by examining their emission pattern.     

Double internal bremsstrahlung in the electron-capture decay of 55Fe

The energy distribution of photons emitted in double internal bremsstrahlung accompanying the electron-capture decay of ⁵⁵Fe has been investigated. For sum photon energies in the range of 44–230 keV and at an emission angle of 90°, the ratio of transition probabilities of double to single internal bremsstrahlung processes has been found to be (5.6±0.5) × 10^?5. The experimental data are compared with the existing theoretical predictions.     

Gamma-ray multiplicities in α-induced compound and precompound reactions

Measurements of γ-ray multiplicities from the¹⁵⁰Sm(α, xn) reactions at beam energies from 40–140 MeV show that the maximum angular momentum transfer occurs at an energy between 12 and 18 MeV higher than that of the maximum of the excitation function for the respective exit channel. At still higher bombarding energies, where precompound processes dominate, a decrease of the multiplicity is observed.     

Photofission of 238U at the energy of the giant dipole resonance

Photofission of ²³⁸ U by bremsstrahlung photons is studied at four energies of an electron accelerator: 19.5, 29.1, 48.3, and 67.7 MeV. The yields of the fission fragments after the emission of prompt neutrons are obtained using the gamma-ray spectroscopic technique. The mass distributions of photofission are obtained at different upper energies of the bremsstrahlung spectrum. The ratio the symmetric-fission mode to the asymmetric mode is obtained from the mass distribution. The symmetric mode becomes 3–4 times greater than the asymmetric as the excitation energy of the ²³⁸U nucleus increases from 12 to 16 MeV.     

Proton–proton bremsstrahlung towards the elastic limit at 190 MeV incident beam energy

A series of nucleon–nucleon bremsstrahlung (NNγ) experiments at 190 MeV incident beam energy have been performed at KVI in order to gain more insight into the dynamics governing the bremsstrahlung reaction. After initial measurements wherein the bremsstrahlung process was studied far away from the elastic limit, a new study was used to probe the process nearer to the elastic limit by measuring at lower photon energies. Measured cross sections and analyzing powers are compared with the predictions of a microscopic model and those of two soft-photon models. The theoretical calculations overestimate the data by up to ≈30%, for some kinematics.     

Yield curves for photo-proton emission from carbon and beryllium

The yields of photo-protons at laboratory angles of 40° and 70° from carbon irradiated with bremsstrahlung of end-point energies between 125 and 1000 MeV are given. From these data and a more limited set for beryllium, the shapes of the cross-sections for photo-proton emission by monochromatic photons are deduced. From a separate series of measurements on carbon at 70° lab with bremsstrahlung of end-point energies 380 and 420 MeV, the energy spectrum of photo-protons emitted by photons of energies 400±20 MeV has been derived.     

Investigation of the reaction <Superscript>4</Superscript>Нe(γ, <Emphasis Type="Italic">pn</Emphasis>)<Emphasis Type="Italic">d</Emphasis> at energies below the meson-production threshold

Themomentum distributions of deuterons and nucleons from the reaction ⁴Не(γ, pn)d induced by bremsstrahlung photons whose spectrum extends up to the endpoint energy of 150 MeV weremeasured by means of a diffusion chamber placed in a magnetic field. These measurements were performed in four photon-energy intervals for deuterons and in the energy range between 100 and 150 MeV for nucleons. Angular and energy correlations of nucleons were measured at photon energies in the interval between 50 and 70 MeV. The results obtained in this way were analyzed on the basis of the quasideuteron model. The probability for final-state nucleon–deuteron interaction was estimated.     

New measurement of the π → μνγ decay

We have measured the branching ratio of the radiative decay π → μνγ. The energies of the gamma-ray and of the muon were both measured and the Dalitz-plot distribution of the decay was obtained. The data agree well with the theoretical prediction (QED internal bremsstrahlung) down to a γ-ray energy of 1 MeV. The discrepancy reported in a previous experiment is not confirmed.     

Photodisintegration of tantalum

The yields of photonucleon reactions on the isotope ¹⁸¹Ta that are induced by bremsstrahlung photons whose endpoint energy is 67.7 MeV are measured by the residual-activity method. The cross sections for photonucleon reactions on the isotope ¹⁸¹Ta are calculated on the basis of the TALYS code and a combined model. The measured reaction yields are compared with their counterparts rescaled from cross sections obtained in experiments that employed beams of quasimonochromatic and bremsstrahlung photons. The spectra of neutrons emitted from ¹⁸¹Ta nuclei after the absorption of photons having various energies are calculated within the TALYS code and the combined model in question.     

Pion and photon bremsstrahlung in a heavy ion reaction model with friction

Based on a classical dynamical model of nuclear motion with a velocity dependent friction force we calculate pionic and electromagnetic bremsstrahlung emitted in heavy ion collisions with bombarding energies between 20 and 84 MeV/n. For arbitrary projectile-target combinations and with a fixed value of the only parameter of the model, the friction coefficientκ, our calculations reproduce the observed beam energy and target mass dependence for pions. The gamma yields, calculated with the same value ofκ, reproduce the measured dependence of the cross-section on energy and target mass, but underestimate the published data by a factor two. This is a good agreement in view of the discrepancies between different experimental groups.     

Asymmetry of bremsstrahlung by moderately relativistic polarized electrons

The asymmetry of bremsstrahlung by transversely polarized electrons using Sommerfeld–Maue wave functions has been calculated. In order to simplify the final formula the relativistic approximation has been used. The results obtained show a linear dependence of the asymmetry on the atomic number Z for the range 4≤Z≤26. It is shown that the approach developed gives the zeroth asymmetry for ultrarelativistic energies as expected but for initial electron energies ～5 MeV the asymmetry may achieve a magnitude ～8% (for Z=26). Polarimetry of electrons with energy higher than 1 MeV (where conventional Mott polarimeters have large experimental difficulties) may be carried out using the bremsstrahlung process providing a reasonable asymmetry and high cross section.     

Double internal bremsstrahlung in electron capture

Double internal bremsstrahlung has been observed in the electron capture decay of ³⁷Ar. The energy distribution of the two photons has been investigated, using a dual parameter pulse-height analysis system, at an angle of θ = 90° between two photon propagation vectors. For sum photon energies in the interval of 210–810 keV and at θ = 90° the ratio of the transition probabilities of double to single bremsstrahlung emissions was found to be (4.8±0.4)×10^?5.     

Electro-produced slow positrons

During the last 6 years it has been demonstrated that electro-produced intense beams of slow positrons are possible. High energy electrons from an accelerator generate bremsstrahlung in a thick conversion target of high element number Z. The photons produce electronpositron pairs and a small fraction of the positrons may be moderated to thermal energies. A review is given of the existing slow positron beam lines using this technique. At accelerator energies of 100 MeV total conversion efficiencies of several slow positrons per 10⁶ primary electrons have been obtained, resulting in average intensities of several 10⁹ slow positrons per second or more than 10⁵ slow positrons in pulses having a duration of a few ns. A further increase in intensity by at least one order of magnitude seems possible at higher accelerator energies.     

First measurement of the Λ→nγ branching ratio

In an experiment performed at the CERN-SPS charged hyperon beam, we have observed the radiative decay Λ→nγ, using well identified Λ from the decays of Ο^? of 116 GeV/c momentum. Neutrons and photons from the Λ decays were observed in liquid argon and lead glass detectors. From a sample of 31 candidates, containing an estimated background of 7.3 events, the decay branching ratio was measured to be Γ(Λ→nγ)/Γ(Λ→all)=(1.02±0.33)×10^?3.     

Parametric X Radiation from Electrons in Mosaic Crystals

A simple model for calculating the contribution of diffraction of actual photons to the measured spectrum of parametric x radiation (PXR) from relativistic electrons in mosaic crystals is suggested. It is shown that the diffraction of real photons of bremsstrahlung and transition radiation in mosaic crystals whose thickness t is about 0.01 of the radiation length makes a significant contribution to the measurable emission spectrum. The spectra and angular distributions of PXR from electrons with energies 500 and 900 MeV have been measured in mosaic pyrolytic graphite crystals. It is demonstrated that with consideration of diffraction of actual photons in the mosaic crystal, including diffraction of PXR photons, all experimental data presently available agree well with the results of calculations for the suggested model.     

Monte Carlo calculation of electron spectra produced in water phantoms by 20 keV-1 GeV photons

Abstract

A Monte Carlo calculation for the energy spectra of electrons and positrons produced in infinite and semiinfinite water phantoms by photons ranging in energies from 20 keV to 1 GeV are presented. The dominant processes considered are the photoelectric effect, Auger effect, Compton effect, pair, and triplet production. Bremsstrahlung produced by electrons and positrons with energies greater than 1 MeV is also included. The effect of multiple Compton scattering, not considered in the earlier calculation, for the infinite phantom for photon energies higher than 2 MeV has been incorporated. For a semi-infinite phantom, multiple Compton scattering and backscattering through the top are considered. The results are compared with the earlier calculations for the first-collision spectrum. It is found that the inclusion of multiple Compton scattering significantly increases the average number of electrons/cm³ per photon/cm² at all energies considered whereas bremsstrahlung reduces the number of high energy electrons and produces more low energy electrons in the spectrum.     

On the role of secondary interactions in the production of bremsstrahlung spectra from a thick target

Bremsstrahlung emission, or radiation loss, is the dominant mechanism of energy dissipation of electrons at relativistic energies greater than a few MeV when it is subjected to acceleration in the field of the nucleus or of the electrons. In this study, the Monte Carlo calculations for bremsstrahlung spectra have been described for the case of a thick tungsten target with incident electron beams from 10 to 50 MeV, where secondary interactions induced by the electrons and photons in the target, such as energy loss, absorption, scattering, and (e ⁺, e ⁻)-pair production effects, were taken into account. The text was submitted by the authors in English.     

Photoneutron cross sections for 9Be obtained with quasi-monoenerget1c photons

Absolute (γ, xn) cross sections for ⁹Be were measured with monochromatic photons from positron annihilation in flight in the energy range from 17 to 37 MeV. No pronounced structure was found in the cross sections in contrast to recent experiments performed with bremsstrahlung sources. The results are compared with many-particle shell model calculations.