Grab vs. composite sampling of particulate materials with significant spatial heterogeneity—A simulation study of “correct sampling errors”

Sampling errors can be divided into two classes, incorrect sampling and correct sampling errors. Incorrect sampling errors arise from incorrectly designed sampling equipment or procedures. Correct sampling errors are due to the heterogeneity of the material in sampling targets. Excluding the incorrect sampling errors, which can all be eliminated in practice although informed and diligent work is often needed, five factors dominate sampling variance: two factors related to material heterogeneity (analyte concentration; distributional heterogeneity) and three factors related to the sampling process itself (sample type, sample size, sampling modus). Due to highly significant interactions, a comprehensive appreciation of their combined effects is far from trivial and has in fact never been illustrated in detail. Heterogeneous materials can be well characterized by the two first factors, while all essential sampling process characteristics can be summarized by combinations of the latter three. We here present simulations based on an experimental design that varies all five factors. Within the framework of the Theory of Sampling, the empirical Total Sampling Error is a function of the fundamental sampling error and the grouping and segregation error interacting with a specific sampling process. We here illustrate absolute and relative sampling variance levels resulting from a wide array of simulated repeated samplings and express the effects by pertinent lot mean estimates and associated Root Mean Squared Errors/sampling variances, covering specific combinations of materials’ heterogeneity and typical sampling procedures as used in current science, technology and industry. Factors, levels and interactions are varied within limits selected to match realistic materials and sampling situations that mimic, e.g., sampling for genetically modified organisms; sampling of geological drill cores; sampling during off-loading 3-dimensional lots (shiploads, railroad cars, truckloads etc.) and scenarios representing a range of industrial manufacturing and production processes. A new simulation facility “SIMSAMP” is presented with selected results designed to show also the wider applicability potential. This contribution furthers a general exposé of all essential effects in the regimen covered by “correct sampling errors”, valid for all types of materials in which non-bias sampling can be achieved.