Next-generation NATO reference mobility model complex terramechanics – Part 2: Requirements and prototype

In part 2 of this paper, the Complex Terramechanics (CT) software tools requirements recommended by the NATO research task group RTG-248 are presented along with example simulations from a CT prototype software tool which attempts to satisfy the requirements.     

Assessing and predicting changes in vegetation cover associated with military land use activities using field monitoring data at Fort Hood, Texas

We assessed short-term impacts of changes in military training load on vegetative cover at Fort Hood, TX. From 1989 to 1995, permanent field transects were monitored for vegetative cover and land use disturbance using standard army monitoring methods [Land Condition Trend Analysis (LCTA)]. Land use intensity (training load) was quantified and used to develop a model to predict future vegetation cover values. We found that standard Army monitoring methods detected changes in installation resources associated with changes in training load. Increased training loads were associated with increased measures of disturbance, decreased ground cover, and decreased aerial vegetative cover. We found that the spatial pattern of disturbance and vegetation cover remained relatively constant over the study period despite large variations in overall training load. Our model used the consistency in spatial cover patterns over time and the strong relationship between training load and vegetation cover to predict the impact of future training loads on vegetation.     

基于小波分析的马铃薯地上生物量估算

地上生物量（AGB）是作物长势评价及产量预测的重要指标,因此快速准确地估算AGB至关重要。由于传统植被指数（VIs）估算多生育期的AGB存在饱和现象,因此,利用VIs结合基于离散小波转换（DWT）的影像小波分解（IWD）技术提取的高频信息和连续小波转换（CWT）技术提取的小波系数,探究VIs,VIs+IWD和VIs+CWT对于AGB的估算能力。首先,基于无人机平台分别获取马铃薯现蕾期、块茎形成期、块茎增长期、淀粉积累期的数码影像和成像高光谱影像以及地面实测的AGB数据。其次,利用数码影像通过IWD技术提取3种高频信息和利用高光谱反射率数据通过CWT技术提取小波系数以及构建6种高光谱植被指数。然后,将植被指数、高频信息和小波系数分别与AGB进行相关性分析,并挑选出不同尺度下相关系数绝对值较高的前10波段。最后,以VIs,VIs+IWD和VIs+CWT这3种变量分别使用偏最小二乘回归（PLSR）方法构建AGB估算模型,并对比不同模型估算AGB的效果。结果表明: （1）每个生育期选取的6种植被指数、3种高频信息和10种小波系数与AGB的相关性均达到0.01显著水平,整个生育期相关性均呈现先升高后降低的趋势,其中以小波系数得到的相关性最高、高频信息次之,植被指数最低。（2）对比分析每个生育期的3种估算模型,以VIs+CWT为输入变量的估算效果最好,VIs+IWD的估算效果次之,而VIs的估算效果最差,说明基于小波分析构建的模型适用性较广、稳定性较强。（3）每个生育期分别以3种变量利用PLSR方法构建的AGB估算模型均在块茎增长期达到最高精度（VIs：建模R2=0.70,RMSE=98.88 kg·hm-12,NRMSE=11.63%;VIs+IWD：建模R2=0.78,RMSE=86.45 kg·hm-12,NRMSE=10.17%;VIs+CWT：建模R2=0.85,RMSE=74.25 kg·hm-12,NRMSE=9.27%）。通过VIs分别结合IWD和CWT技术利用PLSR建模方法,可以提高AGB估算精度,为农业指导管理提供可靠参考。     

Static headspace analysis of volatile organic compounds in soil and vegetation samples for site characterization

Traditional methodologies for the characterization of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in subsurface soil are expensive, time-consuming processes that are often conducted on samples collected at random. The determination of VOCs in near-surface soils and vegetation is the foundation for a more efficient sampling strategy to characterize subsurface soil and improve understanding of environmental problems.In the absence of a standard methodology for the determination of VOCs in vegetation and in view of the high detection limits of the method for soils, we developed a methodology using headspace gas chromatography with an electron capture detector for the determination of low levels (parts-per-billion to parts-per-trillion) of VOCs in soils and vegetation. The technique demonstrates good sensitivity, good recoveries of internal standards and surrogate compounds, good performance, and minimal waste. A case study involving application of this technique as a first-step vadose-zone characterization methodology is presented.     

Polarized Lidar Reflectance Measurements of Vegetation at Near-Infrared and Green Wavelengths

There is growing interest in the use of lidar for remote sensing of vegetation owing to the emergence of reliable and rugged lasers and highly sensitive detectors. Lidar remote sensing has a distinct advantage over conventional techniques in vegetation remote sensing due to its capability for three-dimensional characterization of vegetative targets. The Multiwavelength Airborne Polarimetric Lidar (MAPL) system was developed primarily for vegetation remote sensing applications from an airborne platform of up to 1,000 -m altitude. The lidar system has full waveform capture and polarimetric measurement capability at two wavelengths in the near-infrared (1064 nm) and the green (532 nm) spectral regions. This study presents preliminary ground-based lidar reflectance measurements on a variety of deciduous and coniferous trees under fully foliated conditions with a view towards tree species discrimination. Variations in the reflectance characteristics of selected deciduous trees under unfoliated and fully foliated conditions were also investigated. Our study reveals distinct differences in the reflectance characteristics of various trees.     

Stochastic radiative transfer model for mixture of discontinuous vegetation canopies

Modeling of the radiation regime of a mixture of vegetation species is a fundamental problem of the Earth's land remote sensing and climate applications. The major existing approaches, including the linear mixture model and the turbid medium (TM) mixture radiative transfer model, provide only an approximate solution to this problem. In this study, we developed the stochastic mixture radiative transfer (SMRT) model, a mathematically exact tool to evaluate radiation regime in a natural canopy with spatially varying optical properties, that is, canopy, which exhibits a structured mixture of vegetation species and gaps. The model solves for the radiation quantities, direct input to the remote sensing/climate applications: mean radiation fluxes over whole mixture and over individual species. The canopy structure is parameterized in the SMRT model in terms of two stochastic moments: the probability of finding species and the conditional pair-correlation of species. The second moment is responsible for the 3D radiation effects, namely, radiation streaming through gaps without interaction with vegetation and variation of the radiation fluxes between different species. We performed analytical and numerical analysis of the radiation effects, simulated with the SMRT model for the three cases of canopy structure: (a) non-ordered mixture of species and gaps (TM); (b) ordered mixture of species without gaps; and (c) ordered mixture of species with gaps. The analysis indicates that the variation of radiation fluxes between different species is proportional to the variation of species optical properties (leaf albedo, density of foliage, etc.) Gaps introduce significant disturbance to the radiation regime in the canopy as their optical properties constitute major contrast to those of any vegetation species. The SMRT model resolves deficiencies of the major existing mixture models: ignorance of species radiation coupling via multiple scattering of photons (the linear mixture model) or overestimation of this coupling due to neglecting spatial clumping of species (the TM approach). Thus, based on the former experience with mixture modeling, this study establishes an advanced theoretical basis for future mixture applications.     

煤炭矿区植被冠层光谱土地复垦敏感性分析

煤矿区土地复垦及复垦监测工作,对于我国土地利用和生态环境治理具有重要意义。微生物复垦技术能够促进植物吸收利用矿质养分和水分,增强土壤肥力,对矿区生态恢复具有显著作用。监测和评价土地复垦效应对植物生长影响的传统方法,通常采用野外采集植物和土壤样本并进行室内分析,但这些方法不仅破坏植物根系原状土壤,造成植株损伤,而且耗费人力、物力,时效性差。高光谱遥感技术具有数据获取速度快、信息量大、精度高且无须离体破坏植株等优点,对于土地复垦监测有非常大的潜力。目前,土地复垦效应遥感监测相关研究仍以观测盆栽大豆、玉米等作物的叶片光谱分析为主。实际上,卫星遥感数据观测到的是冠层光谱,并非叶片光谱,但目前还没有通过植被冠层光谱对矿区土地复垦进行监测的研究成果出现。植被冠层光谱不仅受到叶片光谱的影响,还受到植株长势、下垫面等其他因素的影响,光谱特征变化更为复杂。矿区植被冠层光谱特征对于土地复垦效应的敏感度分析,是对矿区植被理化参量进行定量反演的基础,也是限制高光谱技术应用于大面积土地复垦监测的主要瓶颈。于煤炭矿区土地复垦实验基地开展野外冠层光谱观测实验,获取了接菌组和对照组野外植株冠层光谱数据,并从光谱波形变化和光谱特征参量变化两方面综合分析了植被冠层光谱对土地复垦的敏感性。冠层光谱波形方面,分别采用标准差和光谱敏感度作为组内和组间光谱波形差异的有效指标;冠层光谱特征参量方面,选取了植被红边、黄边、蓝边、绿峰、红谷等典型光谱特征,计算获取其位置、斜率、面积等特征参量,并通过描述性统计和单因素方差分析研究了这些冠层光谱特征参量对土地复垦效应的敏感性,挑选出矿区土地复垦监测的有效特征参量。研究表明,接菌组和对照组冠层光谱的主要波形变化趋势一致,但接菌组植株的生长状况更稳定,不同植株之间差异较小,且绿峰和红谷两个特征更突出。这说明土地复垦能够减少植株间冠层光谱差异,增强植被典型光谱特征,而绿峰和红谷对土地复垦有较高的光谱敏感度。光谱特征参量方面,绿峰、红谷、红边波长在土地复垦作用下显著向长波方向移动,而此前叶片光谱研究中对土地复垦较敏感的红边、蓝边斜率变化并不显著。这说明,野外植被冠层光谱分析结果与实验室植被叶片光谱分析的结果并不完全一致,这可能和植被类型、生长周期、土壤背景光谱干扰等因素相关。在采用卫星或航拍遥感数据进行矿区植被环境监测时,所获取的都是植被冠层光谱,因此本研究所得到的结论具有更强的参考意义和实际应用价值。     

铅在铁路岩石边坡创面人工土壤中的迁移特性研究

山区大规模的铁路建设产生了大量的岩石边坡,前期研究表明边坡创面人工土壤受Pb污染,且有中等程度的富集。土壤类型、植被搭配类型是影响Pb迁移特性的重要因素,而目前却未见人工土壤及植被搭配类型对Pb迁移特性影响的相关报道。该研究以铁路岩石边坡创面人工土壤为对象,利用原子吸收分光光度法、红外光谱法分析了人工土壤对Pb的吸附-解吸特性及机制;运用野外人工模拟降雨实验,进一步考察在暴雨径流作用下,Pb在不同植被搭配类型的边坡人工土壤中的迁移过程。结果表明人工土壤对Pb的吸附量随着溶液平衡浓度的增加而急速增加,等温曲线呈“S”型,Freundlich方程能较好地描述人工土壤对Pb的吸附行为,R2为0.91。二次幂函数方程能较好描述NH₄AC对铅的解吸过程,R2为0.96。人工土壤有高岭石红外光谱特征吸收峰,属于高岭石型图谱。高岭石表面-OH、腐殖质表面-OH和-COOH参与吸附作用,置换出H+。人工土壤易将交通运输产生的Pb固定,但又容易再次释放。不同植被搭配类型边坡Pb流失量表现为草本＞草本+灌木＞草本+灌木+乔木。暴雨径流作用下Pb随沉积物相流失是边坡创面人工土壤Pb流失的主体,边坡土壤的侵蚀是导致Pb迁移扩散的主要原因,因此促进边坡植被的恢复,减小边坡人工土壤的侵蚀作用是防止Pb迁移扩散的关键。     

高光谱信息的农林植被种类区分

为了能够更加快速、准确对粮食主产区的作物与树木进行种类区分,以黄淮海地区三种主要植被(玉米、小麦和杨树)为研究对象,获取该三种植被原始反射率光谱,并对原始光谱进行特征点提取、一阶微分变换、二阶微分变换以及植被指数计算四种方法的分析处理,提取三种植被各自的光谱特征点、特征波段、蓝黄红边微分值和、位置、振幅以及面积四个特征指标以及植被指数的数值区间。基于特征值在不同植被种类间数值重叠范围越小区分精度越高的原理,比较分析植被光谱在不同处理方法下的植被区分精度,并且最终选取重叠范围最小的特征指标作为区分不同植被的识别指标。结果显示：相较于原始光谱特征点提取、二阶微分变换以及植被指数计算,一阶微分变换对于玉米、小麦和杨树的识别分类具有较高的精度,其中黄边振幅、黄边面积以及黄边微分值和具有较高的识别精度,黄边振幅的识别精度达到97.5%,黄边面积以及黄边微分值识别精度达98.1%,用另外167组数据对该结果进行验证,显示黄边振幅的识别精度达96.4%,黄边面积以及黄边微分值和的识别精度达97.6%。该结果与用平均光谱曲线区分单种植被不同生长状态选取的特征值结果不同,这种方法能有效的保留个体光谱反射曲线的差异,从结果可见通过一阶微分变换提取黄边参数的方法能有效的用于树木和粮食作物共同种植区域的植被区分, 并且黄边面积以及黄边微分值和的识别精度最高。     

基于实测光谱的植被指数对水稻叶面积指数的响应特征分析

叶面积指数(LAI)是目前最常用的农业生态监测指标,可以为农作物的病虫害监测、作物长势监测、碳循环、生物量估算及作物估产提供依据。植被指数(VI)是卫星LAI产品生产的重要数据源,但不同VIs对植被LAI的响应特征具有一定的差异性。以江西省水稻为例,基于实测光谱提取了水稻实测VIs,结合实测LAI,讨论了归一化植被指数(NDVI)、增强型植被指数(EVI)、土壤调节植被指数(SAVI)和修正的土壤调节植被指数(MSAVI)四种常见VIs对LAI的响应特征,并与MODIS LAI备用算法的计算结果进行了对比分析,研究了不同VIs用于LAI产品反演的可行性及存在的问题。通过对不同实测VIs-LAI模型精度的评估,分析其应用于LAI反演的适应性,结果显示EVI,SAVI和MSAVI比NDVI有更好的适应性,其中EVI效果最优。此外,通过对比MODIS LAI备用算法查找表,发现针对MODIS LAI备用算法中草地与谷物作物这一地表覆盖大类,在LAI>4时,NDVI出现饱和;而实测水稻作物的NDVI在LAI>2时开始出现饱和;且当NDVI相同时,查找表LAI远大于实测LAI,MODIS备用算法中使用的地表覆盖产品分类过粗可能是造成这一结果的主要原因。因此MODIS LAI备用算法在该区域水稻LAI监测中可能产生较大误差,有必要改用其他VIs优化该备用算法。通过对比分析四种VIs模型对LAI的预测误差,发现EVI,SAVI和MSAVI精度明显优于NDVI,基于EVI的模型平均预测误差仅为MODIS LAI备用算法的1/6,基于实测NDVI反演算法的1/2,因此设计基于EVI的LAI算法对LAI的反演精度有一定的提升空间。