SEC ICP MS and CZE ICP MS investigation of medium and high molecular weight complexes formed by cadmium ions with phytochelatins

Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) and capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) coupled with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry were applied to characterize low, medium, and high molecular weight cadmium complexes with glutathione and phytochelatins (PCs). The dominant stoichiometry of the complexes formed in vitro was established as 1:1 using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Calculated molecular masses of Cd₁L₁ complexes were used for calibration of the SEC and CZE methods. The results showed a lower (2 kDa) SEC column exclusion limit for cadmium complexes compared with free peptides (10 kDa), and most of the high molecular weight cadmium species were eluted in the void volume of the column. Moreover, the CZE method based on the semiempirical model of Offord to elucidate peptide migration allowed us to show a high propensity of Cd–PC complexes for polymorphism on complexation, which was also observed for extracts of Arabidopsis thaliana treated with cadmium. All the information presented is vital for understanding the mechanism of metal deactivation in plants.

Characterization of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for the determination of acrylamide in complex environmental samples

This work describes the characterization of a solid-phase extraction (SPE) and liquid-chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry-based method for the analysis of acrylamide (AA) in complex environmental waters. The method involved the SPE of AA using activated carbon, and the AA was detected with tandem mass spectrometry after separating on an ion exclusion high-performance liquid chromatography column. The method incorporated two labeled AA standards for quantification using isotope dilution and to assess absolute extraction recovery. The method was evaluated for inter- and intra-day precision and accuracy. The method was both accurate (i.e., <30 % error) and precise (i.e., <20 % relative standard deviation), with absolute extraction recoveries averaging 37 %. The mass spectrometry provided excellent sensitivity, with instrumental limits of detection and quantitation values of 23 and 75 pg, respectively. The method detection limit was determined to be 0.021 μg/L. The analysis of AA was successfully performed in real-world samples that contained total dissolved solids concentrations ranging from 23,600 to 297,000 mg/L and AA concentrations ranging from 0.082 to 1.0 μg/L.

Solid-phase extraction method for the isolation of plant thionins from European mistletoe, wheat and barley using zirconium silicate embedded in poly(styrene-co-divinylbenzene) hollow-monoliths

Thionins are cysteine-rich, biologically active small (～5 kDa) and basic proteins occurring ubiquitously in the plant kingdom. This study describes an efficient solid-phase extraction (SPE) method for the selective isolation of these pharmacologically active proteins. Hollow-monolithic extraction tips based on poly(styrene-co-divinylbenzene) with embedded zirconium silicate nano-powder were designed, which showed an excellent selectivity for sulphur-rich proteins owing to strong co-ordination between zirconium and the sulphur atoms from the thiol-group of cysteine. The sorbent provides a combination of strong hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions which may help in targeted separation of certain classes of proteins in a complex mixture based upon the binding strength of different proteins. European mistletoe, wheat and barley samples were used for selective isolation of viscotoxins, purothionins and hordothionins, respectively. The enriched fractions were subjected to analysis by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation–time-of-flight mass spectrometer to prove the selectivity of the SPE method towards thionins. For peptide mass-fingerprint analysis, tryptic digests of SPE eluates were examined. Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography hyphenated to diode-array detection was employed for the purification of individual isoforms. The developed method was found to be highly specific for the isolation and purification of thionins.

Rapid and simple UPLC-MS/MS method for precise phytochelatin quantification in alga extracts

Quantitative phytochelatin (PC) analysis is, due to oxidation sensitivity of the PCs, matrix effects, and time consuming sample preparation, still a challenging analytical task. In this study, a rapid, simple, and sensitive method for precise determination of native PCs in crude extracts of the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii was developed. Algae were exposed 48 h to 70 μM Cd. Coupling of ultra performance liquid chromatography and electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry with multi-reaction mode transitions for detection permitted the required short-time, high-resolution separation and detection specificity. Thus, under optimized chromatographic conditions, 10 thiol peptides were baseline-separated within 7 min. Relative detection limits in the nanomolar range in microliter sample volumes were achieved (corresponding to absolute detection limits at femtomol level). Next to glutathione (GSH), the most abundant cadmium-induced PCs in C. reinhardtii, namely CysGSH, PC₂, PC₃, CysPC₂, and CysPC₃, were quantified with high reproducibility at concentrations between 15 and 198 nmol g^?1 fresh weight. The biological variation of PC synthesis of nine independently grown alga cultures was determined to be on average 13.7%.

Evaluation of human plasma sample preparation protocols for untargeted metabolic profiles analyzed by UHPLC-ESI-TOF-MS

Eight human plasma preparation protocols were evaluated for their suitability for metabolomic studies by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry: organic solvent protein precipitation (PPT) with either methanol or acetonitrile in 2:1 and 3:1 (v/v) ratios with plasma; solid-phase extraction (SPE) using C₁₈ or HybridSPE cartridges; and a combination of PPT and SPE C₁₈ cartridges and microextraction by packed sorbent. A study design in which the order of injection of the samples was not randomized is presented. The analyses were conducted in a BEH C₁₈ column (1.7 μm, 2.1 mm?×?100 mm) using a linear gradient from 100 % water to 100 % methanol, both with 0.1 % formic acid, in 21 min. The most reproducible protocol considering both the univariate and the multivariate analysis results was PPT with acetonitrile in a 2:1 (v/v) ratio with plasma, offering a mean coefficient of variation of the area of all the detected features of 0.15 and one of the best clusterings in the principal component analysis plots. On the other hand, the highest number of extracted features was achieved using methanol in a 2:1 (v/v) ratio with plasma as the PPT solvent, closely followed by the same protocol with acetonitrile in a 2:1 (v/v) ratio with plasma, which offered only 1.2 % fewer repeatable features. In terms of concentration of remaining protein, protocols based on PPT with acetonitrile provided cleaner extracts than protocols based on PPT with methanol. Finally, pairwise comparison showed that the use of PPT- and SPE-based protocols offers a different coverage of the metabolome. Graphical Abstract

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Comparative direct infusion ion mobility mass spectrometry profiling of Thermus thermophilus wild-type and mutant ∆cruC carotenoid extracts

The major carotenoid species isolated from the thermophilic bacterium Thermus thermophilus HB27 have been identified as zeaxanthin–glucoside–fatty acid esters (thermozeaxanthins and thermobiszeaxanthins). Most of the genes of the proposed T. thermophilus carotenoid pathway could be found in the genome, but there is less clarity about the genes which encode the enzymes performing the final carotenoid glycosylation and acylation steps. To get a further insight into the biosynthesis of thermo(bis)zeaxanthins in T. thermophilus, we deleted the megaplasmid open reading frame TT_P0062 (termed cruC) by both exchanging it with a kanamycin resistance cassette (ΔcruC:kat) and by generating a markerless gene deletion strain (ΔcruC). A fast and efficient electrospray ionization–ion mobility–time-of-flight mass spectrometry method via direct infusion was developed to compare the carotenoid profiles of wild type and mutant T. thermophilus cell culture extracts. These comparisons revealed significant alterations in the carotenoid composition of the ΔcruC mutant, which was found to accumulate zeaxanthin. This is the first experimental evidence that the ORF encodes the glycosyltransferase enzyme necessary for the glycosylation of zeaxanthin in the final modification steps of the thermozeaxanthin biosynthesis in T. thermophilus HB27. Also, the proposed method for direct determination of carotenoid amounts and species in crude acetone extracts represents an improvement over existing methods in terms of speed and sensitivity and may be applicable in high-throughput analyses of other terpenoids as well as other important bacterial metabolites like fatty acids and their derivatives.

Electrochemistry and voltammetric determination of L-tryptophan and L-tyrosine using a glassy carbon electrode modified with a Nafion/TiO2-graphene composite film

We describe a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) modified with a film composed of Nafion and TiO₂-graphene (TiO₂-GR) nanocomposite, and its voltammetric response to the amino acids L-tryptophane (Trp) and L-tyrosine (Tyr). The incorporation of TiO₂ nanoparticles with graphene significantly improves the electrocatalytic activity and voltammetric response compared to electrodes modified with Nafion/graphene only. The Nafion/TiO₂-GR modified electrode was used to determine Trp and Tyr with detection limits of 0.7 and 2.3 μM, and a sensitivity of 75.9 and 22.8 μA mM^?1 for Trp and Tyr, respectively.

Development of an LC-MS/MS method for aromatase inhibitor screening

Aromatase (CYP 19A1) is a key steroidogenic enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of androgen to estrogen. In this study, a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for aromatase inhibitor screening was developed and validated. The substrate androstenedione was incubated with human CYP 19A1 supersomes in the presence of NADPH for 30 min, and estrone formation was determined by LC-MS/MS analysis. Cortisone was used as internal standard. The incubation mixture was extracted using a liquid-liquid extraction method with ethyl acetate. Chromatographic separation was achieved using a C₁₈ column (3.0?×?50 mm, 2.7 μm) with a mobile phase consisting of 0.1 % formic acid/acetonitrile adopting gradient elution at a flow rate of 0.4 mL/min. The mass spectrometer was operated in positive electrospray ionization mode. The precursor-product ion pairs used for multiple reaction monitoring were m/z 287→97 (androstenedione), m/z 271?→?159 (estrone), and m/z 361?→?163 (IS, cortisone). The developed method met the required criteria for the validation of bioanalytical methods. The validated method was successfully applied to evaluate aromatase inhibitory activity of plants extracts of Simaroubaceae.

Implementation of Dipolar Resonant Excitation for Collision Induced Dissociation with Ion Mobility/Time-of-Flight MS

An ion mobility/time-of-flight mass spectrometer (IMS/TOF MS) platform that allows for resonant excitation collision induced dissociation (CID) is presented. Highly efficient, mass-resolved fragmentation without additional excitation of product ions was accomplished and over-fragmentation common in beam-type CID experiments was alleviated. A quadrupole ion guide was modified to apply a dipolar AC signal across a pair of rods for resonant excitation. The method was characterized with singly protonated methionine enkephalin and triply protonated peptide angiotensin I, yielding maximum CID efficiencies of 44 % and 84 %, respectively. The Mathieu q_x,y parameter was set at 0.707 for these experiments to maximize pseudopotential well depths and CID efficiencies. Resonant excitation CID was compared with beam-type CID for the peptide mixture. The ability to apply resonant waveforms in mobility-resolved windows is demonstrated with a peptide mixture yielding fragmentation over a range of mass-to-charge (m/z) ratios within a single IMS-MS analysis.

Application of UPLC-QTOF-MS in MSE mode for the rapid and precise identification of alkaloids in goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis)

Here, we describe a new application of ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with an electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry operating in MS^E mode (UPLC-QTOF-MS^E) for the sensitive, fast, and effective characterization of alkaloids in goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis). This approach allowed identification of alkaloids using a cyclic low and high collision energy spectral acquisition mode providing simultaneous accurate precursor and fragment ion mass information. A total of 45 compounds were separated and 40 of them characterized including one new compound and 7 identified for the first time in goldenseal. The spectral data obtained using this method is comparable to those obtained by conventional LC-MSⁿ. However, the UPLC-QTOF-MS^E method offers high chromatographic resolution with structural characterization facilitated by accurate mass measurement in both MS and MS/MS modes in a single analytical run; this makes it suitable for the rapid analysis and screening of alkaloids in plant extracts.

A targeted/non-targeted screening method for perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids and sulfonates in whole fish using quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry and MSe

A new method for measuring perfluoroalkyl contaminants (PFCs) in biological matrices has been developed. An ultra-high pressure liquid chromatograph equipped with a quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer (UPLC-QToF) was optimized using a continuous precursor/product ion monitoring mode. Unlike traditional targeted studies that isolate precursor/product ion pairs, the current method alternates between two ionization energy channels to continuously capture standard electrospray ionization (low energy) and collision induced dissociation (high energy) spectra. The result is the indiscriminant acquisition of paired low and high energy spectra for all constituents eluting from the chromatographic system. This technique was evaluated for the routine analysis of perfluoroalkyl species. Using this technique, linear perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (C₄ to C₁₄) and perfluoroalkyl sulfonates (C₄, C₆, C₈ and C₁₀) exhibited a linear range spanning over three orders of magnitude and were detectable at levels less than 1 pg on column with a root mean squared signal to noise ratio of 5 to 20. Lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) and National Institutes of Standards and Technology Standard Reference Material 1946 were used to evaluate matrix effects and the accuracy of this method when applied to a whole fish extract. The current method was also evaluated as a diagnostic tool to identify unknown PFCs using experimental fragmentation patterns, mass defect filtering and Kendrick plots.

Determination of sulfadiazine in phosphate- and DOC-rich agricultural drainage water using solid-phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Trace levels of the veterinary antibiotic compound sulfadiazine (SDZ) can be determined in agricultural drainage water samples with this new method. Optimized sample pretreatment and solid-phase extraction was combined with liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (SPE LC-MS/MS) using positive electrospray ionization. The linear dynamic range for the LC-MS/MS was assessed from 5 μg/L to 25 mg/L with a 15-point calibration curve displaying a coefficient of correlation r ²?=?0.9915. Agricultural drainage water spiked at a concentration of 25 ng/L gave recoveries between 63 and 98 % (relative standard deviation 15 %), while at 10 ng/L, it showed a lower recovery of 32 % (relative standard deviation 47 %). The final SPE LC-MS/MS method had a limit of detection (LOD)_Method and a limit of quantification (LOQ)_Method of 7.5 and 23 ng/L agricultural drainage water, respectively. Determination of SDZ, spiked at a realistic concentration of 50 μg/L, in artificial drainage water (ADW) containing common and high levels of phosphate (0.05, 0.5, and 5 mg/L) gave recoveries between 70 and 92 % (relative standard deviation 7.4–12.9 %). Analysis of the same realistic concentration of SDZ in ADW, spiked with common and high levels of dissolved organic carbon (2, 6, and 15 mg/L) confirmed the possible adaptation of a tandem solid-phase extraction (strong anion exchange (SAX)-hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB)) followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry methodology. Recoveries obtained ranged from 104 to 109 % (relative standard deviation 2.8–5.2 %). The new methods enable determination of the veterinary antibiotic compound SDZ in agricultural drainage water from field experiments and monitoring schemes for phosphate- and dissolved organic carbon (DOC)-rich water samples in intensive farming areas.

Separation and quantification of four isomers of indole-3-acetyl-myo-inositol in plant tissues using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry

Indole-3-acetyl-myo-inositol (IAInos) is one of the most important auxin conjugates for storage and transportation of auxin. The information of its composition, distribution, and metabolism is particularly desired for elucidating the related signal transduction pathways of the plant hormones. However, separation and quantification of the four individual IAInos isomers in plant tissues have not been reported so far. In this work, we first synthesized and isolated four IAInos isomers using semi-preparative high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The IAInos isomer structures were characterized using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF/MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). Using these pure compounds as internal or external standards, an efficient LC-MS method was developed for simultaneous detection of indole-3-acetic acid, methyl indole-3-acetic acid ester, and the four IAInos isomers in plant tissue samples. The linear working range and lower limit of detection for the four IAInos isomers are 10–2,000 ng mL^?1 and 5.0 ng mL^?1, respectively. The stabilities and interconversion pathways of IAInos isomers were studied using our synthetic isomers. It was found that two IAInos isomers existed in Zea mays kernels, while all of the four IAInos isomers were present in the roots of Arabidopsis thaliana. The content of IAInos in A. thaliana roots was much lower than in the Z. mays kernels. The methodology in this article provides useful techniques and methods for systematic study on the phytophysiology and phytochemistry of IAA conjugates and other related plant hormones.

Low-cost reduced graphene oxide-based conductometric nitrogen dioxide-sensitive sensor on paper

The fabrication concept for a low-cost sensor device using reduced graphene oxide (rGO) as the sensing material on a porous paper substrate is presented. The sensors were characterized using conductivity and capacitance measurements, atomic force microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The effects of different reducing agents, graphene oxide (GO) flake size and film thickness were studied. The sensor was sensitive to NO₂, and devices based on a thin (10-nm) hydrazine-reduced GO layer had the best sensitivity, reaching a 70 % reduction in resistance after 10 min of exposure to 10 ppm NO₂. The sensitivity was high enough for the detection of sub-parts per million levels of NO₂. Desorption of gas molecules, i.e. the recovery of the sensor, could be accelerated by UV irradiation. The structure and preparation of the sensor are simple and up-scalable, allowing their fabrication in bulk quantities, and the fabrication concept can be applied to other materials, too.

Magnetic titanium oxide nanoparticles for hemimicelle extraction and HPLC determination of organophosphorus pesticides in environmental water

We report on a method for the extraction of organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) from water samples using mixed hemimicelles and magnetic titanium dioxide nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄@TiO₂) modified by cetyltrimethylammonium. Fe₃O₄@TiO₂ nanoparticles were synthesized by a hydrothermal process and then characterized by scanning electron microscopy and Fourier transform IR spectrometry. The effects of the quantity of surfactant, extraction time, desorption solvent, pH value, extraction volume and reuse of the sorbent were optimized with respect to the extraction of OPPs including chlorpyrifos, dimethoate, and trichlorfon. The extraction method was applied to analyze OPPs in environmental water using HPLC along with UV detection. The method has a wide linear range (100–15,000 ng L^?1), good linearity (r?>?0.999), and low detection limits (26–30 ng L^?1). The enrichment factor is ~1,000. The recoveries (at spiked levels of 100, 1,000 and 10,000 ng L^?1) are in the range of 88.5–96.7 %, and the relative standard deviations range from 2.4 % to 8.7 %.

Measuring Positive Cooperativity Using the Direct ESI-MS Assay. Cholera Toxin B Subunit Homopentamer Binding to GM1 Pentasaccharide

Direct electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) assay was used to investigate the stepwise binding of the GM1 pentasaccharide β-D-Galp-(1→3)-β-D-GalpNAc-(1→4)[α-D-Neu5Ac-(2→3)]-β-D-Galp-(1→4)-β-D-Glcp (GM1os) to the cholera toxin B subunit homopentamer (CTB₅) and to establish conclusively whether GM1os binding is cooperative. Apparent association constants were measured for the stepwise addition of one to five GM1os to CTB₅ at pH 6.9 and 22 °C. The intrinsic association constant, which was established from the apparent association constant for the addition of a single GM1os to CTB₅, was found to be (3.2 ± 0.2) × 10⁶ M^–1. This is in reasonable agreement with the reported value of (6.4 ± 0.3) × 10⁶ M^–1, which was measured at pH 7.4 and 25 °C using isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). Analysis of the apparent association constants provides direct and unambiguous evidence that GM1os binding exhibits small positive cooperativity. Binding was found to be sensitive to the number of ligand-bound nearest neighbor subunits, with the affinities enhanced by a factor of 1.7 and 2.9 when binding occurs next to one or two ligand-bound subunits, respectively. These findings, which provide quantitative support for the binding model proposed by Homans and coworkers [14], highlight the unique strengths of the direct ESI-MS assay for measuring cooperative ligand binding.

Radical polymerization of methyl methacrylate with 2,2,3-triphenylpropanoic acid as an initiator

An unsymmetrical compound, 2,2,3-triphenylpropanoic acid (TPPA), was successfully prepared from phenyllithium, 1,1-diphenylethylene (DPE), gas carbon dioxide (CO₂), and aqueous standard solution of hydrochloric acid with LiCl deprivation. Characterization of the compound was performed by ¹H and ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The polymerization of methyl methacrylate (MMA) was performed in the presence of TPPA at 95 °C. The free radicals obtained were characterized by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC/Q-TOF MS). Gel permeation chromatography (GPC) traces of the average molecular weight of poly(MMA) (PMMA) showed a series of translations with increasing time. The average molecular weight of PMMA indicated narrow polydispersity, and an approximately linear relationship was found between ln ([M]₀/[M]) and polymerization time.

Preparation of guanidinium terminus-molecularly imprinted polymers for selective recognition and solid-phase extraction (SPE) of [arginine]-microcystins

About 70 % of microcystin (MC) congeners reported in literature consist of l-arginine amino acid (R) with its guanidinium terminal extending out of the cyclic moiety of these MCs. Molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) bearing guanidinium terminus cavities was successfully synthesised using l-arginine as a template. Non-imprinted polymer (NIP; without template) was also synthesised for control purposes. The surface area, total pore volume and average pore diameter of MIP and NIP were 267.13 m²/g, 0.63 cm³/g and 88.39 Å; 249.39 m²/g; 0.54 cm³/g and 87.14 Å, respectively. The polymers were investigated for selective recognition and extraction of [arginine]-MCs in water using solid-phase extraction/liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation–mass spectrometry (SPE/LC-ESI-MS) method. Representative model standard solutions (0.5–10.0 μg/L) of MC-LR and MC-LY were spiked in distilled water, recovered by SPE and quantified by LC-ESI-MS. In this study, Oasis Waters? HLB cartridges served as positive control SPE sorbents. The MIP recognised MC-LR with high recoveries (70.8–91.4 %; r ² ?=?0.9962) comparable to HLB cartridges (71.0–91.85 %; r ² ?=?0.9993), whereas the NIP did not recognise or retain MC-LR. Also, neither MIP nor NIP recognised or retained MC-LY. Extracts of environmental toxic Microcystis aeruginosa were subjected to SPE procedure employing MIP, NIP and HLB cartridges. Microcystin-LR, -YR, -RR, -WR, -(H₄)YR and (D-Asp³, Dha⁷)MC-RR were extracted by MIP and HLB cartridges only as confirmed by LC-ESI-MS. This study demonstrated that the prepared MIP have potential applications for the removal in water and LC-ESI-MS identifications of MCs consisting the guanidinium moiety, i.e.[arginine]-MCs, and in particular targeting commonly encountered toxic congeners, MC-LR, -YR and -RR.

MALDI-Q-TOF mass spectrometric determination of gold and platinum in tissues using their diethyldithiocarbamate chelate complexes

A rapid determination method is presented for gold (Au³⁺) and platinum (Pt⁴⁺) in tissues using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-Q-TOF-MS). Au and Pt ions in wet-ashed tissue solution were reacted with diethyldithiocarbamate (DDC), and the resulting chelate complex ions Au(DDC)₂ ⁺ and Pt(DDC)₃ ⁺ were detected by MALDI-Q-TOF-MS using α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid as a matrix. The limit of detection (LOD) was 0.8 ng/g tissue and the quantification range was 2–400 ng/g for Au, and the LOD was 6 ng/g tissue and the quantification range was 20–4,000 ng/g for Pt. The Pt levels detected by MALDI-Q-TOF-MS in several tissues of a patient overdosed with cisplatin were nearly the same as those detected by flow-injection electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. The LODs of Au and Pt were 0.04 pg per well (sample spot) and 0.3 pg per well, respectively. To our knowledge, this is the first attempt to quantify Au³⁺ and Pt⁴⁺ ions in tissues by MALDI-Q-TOF-MS.

A highly sensitive caffeine immunoassay based on a monoclonal antibody

A new immunoassay has been developed based on a commercially available anti-caffeine monoclonal antibody and a de novo synthesized tracer, using horseradish peroxidase and UV–visible detection. Caffeine, which is frequently found in surface waters, can be quantified with a relative error lower than 20% for concentrations above 0.025 μg L^?1 (limit of quantitation, direct analysis). The limit of detection is 0.001 μg L^?1 and can be reduced by solid-phase extraction (SPE). Moreover, with minor adaptations, the assay can be used to quantify caffeine in several beverages, shampoo, and caffeine tablets. The results obtained by ELISA correlate well with those from liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS–MS) for the tested matrices. Several surface waters from Berlin were analysed and all tested positive for caffeine, with concentrations higher than 0.030 μg L^?1. In one run 66 samples can be analysed within 2 h.