Density Functional Theory Study of Reaction Equilibria in Signal Amplification by Reversible Exchange

An in-depth theoretical analysis of key chemical equilibria in Signal Amplification by Reversible Exchange (SABRE) is provided, employing density functional theory calculations to characterize the likely reaction network. For all reactions in the network, the potential energy surface is probed to identify minimum energy pathways. Energy barriers and transition states are calculated, and harmonic transition state theory is applied to calculate exchange rates that approximate experimental values. The reaction network energy surface can be modulated by chemical potentials that account for the dependence on concentration, temperature, and partial pressure of molecular constituents (hydrogen, methanol, pyridine) supplied to the experiment under equilibrium conditions. We show that, under typical experimental conditions, the Gibbs free energies of the two key states involved in pyridine-hydrogen exchange at the common Ir-IMes catalyst system in methanol are essentially the same, i. e., nearly optimal for SABRE. We also show that a methanol-containing intermediate is plausible as a transient species in the process.     

Mechanisms of methanol decomposition on platinum: A combined experimental and ab initio approach

The dual path mechanism for methanol decomposition on well-defined low Miller index platinum single crystal planes, Pt(111), Pt(110), and Pt(100), was studied using a combination of chronoamperometry, fast scan cyclic voltammetry, and theoretical methods. The main focus was on the electrode potential range when the adsorbed intermediate, CO(ad), is stable. At such "CO stability" potentials, the decomposition proceeds through a pure dehydrogenation reaction, and the dual path mechanism is then independent of the electrode-substrate surface structure. However, the threshold potential where the decomposition of methanol proceeds via parallel pathways, forming other than CO(ad) products, depends on the surface structure. This is rationalized theoretically. To gain insights into the controlling surface chemistry, density functional theory calculations for the energy of dehydrogenation were used to approximate the potential-dependent methanol dehydrogenation pathways over aqueous-solvated platinum interfaces.     

On the hydrogenation of CO and CO2 over copper/zirconia and palladium/zirconia catalysts

Summary Zirconia-supported hydrogenation catalysts were obtained by activation of the amorphous precursors Cu₇₀Zr₃₀ and Pd₂₅Zr₇₅ under CO₂ hydrogenation conditions. Catalysts of comparable compositions prepared by co-precipitation and wet impregnation of zirconia with copper- and palladium salts, respectively, served as reference materials. The catalyst surfaces under reaction conditions were investigated by diffuse reflectance FTIR spectroscopy. Carbonates, formate, formaldehyde, methylate and methanol were identified as the pivotal surface species. The appearance and surface concentrations of these species were correlated with the presence of CO₂ and CO as reactant gases, and with the formation of either methane or methanol as reaction products. Two major pathways have been identified from the experimental results. i) The reaction of CO₂/H₂-mixtures on Cu/zirconia and Pd/zirconia primarily yields surface formate, which is hydrogenated to methane without further observable intermediates. ii) The catalytic reaction between CO and hydrogen yields -bonded formaldehyde, which is subsequently reduced to methylate and methanol. Interestingly, there is no observable correlation between absorbed formaldehyde or methylate on the one hand, and gas phase methane on the other hand. The reactants, CO₂ and CO, can be interconverted catalytically by the water gas shift reaction. The influence of the metals on this system of coupled reactions gives rise to different product selectivities in CO₂ hydrogenation reactions. On zirconia-supported palladium catalysts, surface formate is efficiently reduced to methane, which consequently appears to be the principal CO₂ hydrogenation product. In contrast, there is a favorable reaction pathway on copper in which CO is reduced to methanol without C-O bond cleavage; surface formate does not participate significantly in this reaction. In CO₂ hydrogenations on copper/zirconia, methanol can be obtained as the main product, from a sequence of the reverse water gas shift reaction followed by CO reduction.     

Hydrothermal reactions of formaldehyde and formic acid: free-energy analysis of equilibrium

The chemical equilibria concerning formaldehyde and formic acid are computationally investigated in water over a wide range of thermodynamic conditions. The free energy is evaluated in the method of energy representation for the solvent effect on the decomposition processes of these two compounds. The solvation is found to suppress the production of nonpolar species from a polar. In the two competitive decomposition reactions of formic acid, the solvent strongly inhibits the decarboxylation (HCOOH-->CO2+H2) and its effect is relatively weak for the decarbonylation (HCOOH-->CO+H2O). The equilibrium weights for the two decomposition pathways of formic acid are determined by the equilibrium constant of the water-gas-shift reaction (CO+H2O-->CO2+H2), which is an essential and useful process in fuel technology. The reaction control by the solvent is then examined for the water-gas-shift reaction. Through the comparison of the equilibrium constants in the absence and presence of solvent, even the favorable side of the reaction is shown to be tuned by the solvent density and temperature. The reaction equilibrium is further treated for aldehyde disproportionation reactions involving formaldehyde and formic acid. The disproportionation reactions are found to be subject to relatively weak solvent effects and to be dominated by the electronic contribution.     

Modification of a Pt surface by spontaneous Sn deposition for electrocatalytic applications. 2. Oxidation of CO,formaldehyde, formic acid,and methanol

The electrocatalytic activity of a spontaneously tin-modified Pt catalyst, fabricated through a simple dip-coating method under open-circuit conditions and characterized using surface analysis methods, was studied in electrooxidation reactions of a preadsorbed CO monolayer and continuous oxidation of methanol, formic acid, and formaldehyde in the potentiodynamic and potentiostatic modes. The catalytic activity of the tin-modified Pt surface is compared with that of a polycrystalline Pt electrode. Spontaneously Sn-modified Pt catalyst shows a superior activity toward adsorbed CO oxidation and thus can be promising for PEFC applications. The methanol oxidation rate is not enhanced on the Sn-modified Pt surface, compared to the Pt electrode. Formic acid oxidation is enhanced in the low potential region on the Sn-modified surface, compared to the Pt electrode. The formaldehyde oxidation rate is dramatically increased by modifying tin species at the most negative potentials, where anodic formaldehyde oxidation is completely suppressed on the pure Pt electrode. The results are discussed in terms of poisoning CO intermediate formation resulting from dehydrogenation of organic molecules on Pt sites, and oxidation of poisoning adsorbed CO species via the surface reaction with OH adsorbed on neighboring Sn sites.     

Thermodynamics of catalytic formation of dimethyl ether from methanol in acidic zeolites

We present a theoretical study of the formation of the first intermediate, dimethyl ether, in the methanol to gasoline conversion within the framework of an ab initio molecular dynamics approach. The study is performed under conditions that closely resemble the reaction conditions in the zeolite catalyst including the full topology of the framework. The use of the method of thermodynamic integration allows us to extract the free-energy profile along the reaction coordinate. We find that the entropic contribution qualitatively alters the free-energy profile relative to the total energy profile. Different transition states are found from the internal and free energy profiles. The entropy contribution varies significantly along the reaction coordinate and is responsible for stabilizing the products and for lowering the energy barrier. The hugely inhomogeneous variation of the entropy can be understood in terms of elementary processes that take place during the chemical reaction. Our simulations provide new insights into the complex nature of this chemical reaction.     

Genesis of coordinatively unsaturated palladium complexes dissolved from solid precursors during Heck coupling reactions and their role as catalytically active species

The Forum Article critically summarizes investigations and discussions on the nature and role of potential active species in C-C coupling reactions of the Heck type using catalyst systems with "ligand-free" inorganic salts, simple inorganic complexes, and supported and nonsupported (colloidal) Pd particles. From a series of experiments and reports, it can be concluded that the "active species" is generated in situ in catalytic systems at higher temperature conditions (>100 degrees C). In all heterogeneous systems with solid Pd catalysts, Pd is dissolved from the solid catalyst surface under reaction conditions by a chemical reaction (complex formation and/or oxidative addition of the aryl halide), forming extremely active coordinatively unsaturated Pd species. Pd is partially or completely redeposited onto the support at the end of the reaction when the aryl halide is used up. The Pd dissolution-redeposition processes correlate with the reaction rate and are strongly influenced by the reaction conditions. Skilled preparation of the catalyst and careful adjustment of the reaction conditions allowed the development of highly active heterogeneous catalysts (Pd/C, Pd/metal oxide, and Pd/zeolite), converting aryl bromides and aryl chlorides in high yields and short reaction times. Reaction conditions have been developed allowing the conversion of bromobenzene with turnover numbers (TONs) of 10(7) and even of unreactive aryl chlorides (chlorobenzene and chlorotoluene) in high yields with simple "ligand-free" Pd catalyst systems like PdCl2 or Pd(OH)2 in the absence of any organic ligand. Simple coordinatively unsaturated anionic palladium halide (in particular, bromo) complexes [PdXn](m-) play a crucial role as precursor and active species in all ligand-free and heterogeneous catalyst systems and possibly in Heck reactions at all.     

Mechanistic and spectroscopic identification of initial reaction intermediates for prenal decomposition on a platinum model catalyst

The prediction of a reaction mechanism and the identification of the corresponding chemical intermediates is a major challenge in surface science and heterogeneous catalysis, due to a complex network of elementary steps and surface species. Here we demonstrate how to overcome this difficulty by tracking the temperature dependent formation of the initial reaction intermediates and identifying the decomposition pathways in the case of prenal, an α,β-unsaturated aldehyde, on the Pt(111) model catalyst surface by combining vibrational spectroscopy, thermal reaction/desorption spectroscopy (TPRS) experiments and detailed theoretical analysis. TPRS characterization of this reaction up to 600 K shows a series of desorption states of H(2) (～280 K, 410 K and 473 K) and CO (～414 K), giving valuable insights into the sequence of elementary steps suggesting that the loss of hydrogen and the carbonyl functions are among the first elementary steps. HREELS experiments recorded after annealing to specific temperatures result in complex spectra, which can be assigned to several subsequently formed and transformed surface intermediates. Starting from stable prenal adsorption structures, complementary DFT calculations allow the determination of the most likely reaction pathway for the initial decomposition steps and the identification of the corresponding intermediates by comparison with HREELS. The decomposition occurs from the strongly bonded prenal adsorption structures via a dehydro-η(3)-triσ(CCC)-H1 intermediate to the highly stable η(1)-isobutylidyne species at high temperatures.     

Coupled molecular dynamics-Monte Carlo model to study the role of chemical processes during laser ablation of polymeric materials

The coarse grained chemical reaction model is enhanced to build a molecular dynamics (MD) simulation framework with an embedded Monte Carlo (MC) based reaction scheme. The MC scheme utilizes predetermined reaction chemistry, energetics, and rate kinetics of materials to incorporate chemical reactions occurring in a substrate into the MD simulation. The kinetics information is utilized to set the probabilities for the types of reactions to perform based on radical survival times and reaction rates. Implementing a reaction involves changing the reactants species types which alters their interaction potentials and thus produces the required energy change. We discuss the application of this method to study the initiation of ultraviolet laser ablation in poly(methyl methacrylate). The use of this scheme enables the modeling of all possible photoexcitation pathways in the polymer. It also permits a direct study of the role of thermal, mechanical, and chemical processes that can set off ablation. We demonstrate that the role of laser induced heating, thermomechanical stresses, pressure wave formation and relaxation, and thermochemical decomposition of the polymer substrate can be investigated directly by suitably choosing the potential energy and chemical reaction energy landscape. The results highlight the usefulness of such a modeling approach by showing that various processes in polymer ablation are intricately linked leading to the transformation of the substrate and its ejection. The method, in principle, can be utilized to study systems where chemical reactions are expected to play a dominant role or interact strongly with other physical processes.     

非均相离子液体催化CO2环加成反应研究进展

二氧化碳（CO2）是一种来源丰富的C1资源,在温和条件下实现CO2的资源化利用是当前研究的热点之一。CO2环加成反应制备环状碳酸酯是CO2资源化利用的重要途径之一。环状碳酸酯是电池电解液的优良介质,可承受较恶劣的光、热及化学变化;同时也是聚氨酯、聚碳酸酯等精细化工中间体,广泛应用于医药、化工、纺织、印染等领域。非均相离子液体催化剂具有化学和热稳定性好、合成过程简单和可重复使用等优势。本文重点总结了近年来非均相离子液体催化剂在CO2和环氧化物环加成反应中的应用,并对非均相离子液体催化CO2环加成反应的发展进行展望。     

Prediction of vibrational frequencies of possible intermediates and side products of the methanol synthesis on ZnO(0001) by ab initio calculations

We used ab initio density functional theory in combination with an embedded cluster approach to calculate vibrational spectra and formation enthalpies of possible intermediates and side products (spectator species) in the synthesis of methanol out of syngas on the ZnO(0001) surface. Our investigations are based upon our previous work on possible reaction pathways and activation barriers for this reaction at oxygen vacancies on ZnO(0001). We present and discuss calculated vibrational frequencies of short-living formyl, hydroxymethylene, formaldehyde, acetale, and hydroxymethyl intermediates and compare the calculated frequencies of formate and methoxy species as well as CO and CO(2) species, at the defect free surface and at oxygen vacancies, with recent experimental findings. All investigated species show characteristic features in their spectra. Therefore, the analysis of their vibrational frequencies is a suitable mean to distinguish them and gain new insights in this reaction which is of recent experimental interest. We are able to identify the structure and characteristics of different surface species, such as monodentate and polydentate carbonate and formate species, in agreement with experimental results.     

碳质表面异相还原NO2的反应机理

基于量子化学密度泛函理论（DFT），研究了碳质表面异相还原NO₂的反应机理，针对Zigzag与Armchair两种碳质表面，采用M06-2X方法与6-311G （d）基组联用，优化得到了不同反应路径下所有驻点的几何构型与能量，并对各路径进行了热力学与动力学分析，重点探究了CO在NO₂异相还原反应中的作用规律，同时考察了碳质表面与反应温度对异相反应的影响。计算结果表明，NO₂在碳质表面的异相还原过程主要分为两个阶段，即NO₂还原阶段与碳氧化物释放阶段。通过对比无CO分子参与的反应可知，参与反应的CO分子可以降低各阶段的反应能垒并且加快各阶段的反应速率；CO分子存在时，NO₂还原阶段的反应能垒被降低，促进了NO₂还原成NO的异相反应过程，同时参与反应的CO分子与碳质表面剩余氧原子结合，形成CO₂分子并释放，使碳氧化物释放阶段的反应能垒降低，从而促进了整体还原反应的进行。此外，与Armchair型相比，基于Zigzag型碳质表面的NO₂异相还原反应能垒更低且反应速率更快，说明NO₂异相还原反应更容易在Zigzag型碳质表面进行。最后，由反应动力学分析可知，随着温度上升，各阶段的反应速率均增大，说明提高温度对碳质表面的NO₂异相还原能够起到促进作用。     

Topography of the free-energy landscape probed via mechanical unfolding of proteins

Single-molecule experiments in which proteins are unfolded by applying mechanical stretching forces generally force unfolding to proceed along a reaction coordinate that is different from that in chemical or thermal denaturation. Here we simulate the mechanical unfolding and refolding of a minimalist off-lattice model of the protein ubiquitin to explore in detail the slice of the multidimensional free-energy landscape that is accessible via mechanical pulling experiments. We find that while the free-energy profile along typical "chemical" reaction coordinates may exhibit two minima, corresponding to the native and denatured states, the free energy G(z) is typically a monotonic function of the mechanical coordinate z equal to the protein extension. Application of a stretching force along z tilts the free-energy landscape resulting in a bistable (or multistable) free energy G(z)-fz probed in mechanical unfolding experiments. We construct a two-dimensional free-energy surface as a function of both chemical and mechanical reaction coordinates and examine the coupling between the two. We further study the refolding trajectories after the protein has been prestretched by a large force, as well as the mechanical unfolding trajectories in the presence of a large stretching force. We demonstrate that the stretching forces required to destabilize the native state thermodynamically are larger than those expected on the basis of previous experimental estimates of G(z). This finding is consistent with the recent experimental studies, indicating that proteins may refold even in the presence of a substantial stretching force. Finally, we show that for certain temperatures the free energy of a polyprotein chain consisting of multiple domains is a linear function of the chain extension. We propose that the recently observed "slow phase" in the refolding of proteins under mechanical tension may be viewed as downhill diffusion in such a linear potential.     

镍基中空纤维催化剂实现甲烷高效电催化转化

随着天然气以及页岩气为代表的非常规天然气的大规模开采,甲烷作为化工原料的直接转化利用受到了越来越多的关注.然而,甲烷分子具有极其稳定的正四面体结构,其物理化学性质非常稳定,如具有高达439 kJ/mol的C-H键能、极弱的电子亲和力、相当大的离子化能量和低的极化率,这都使得甲烷分子C-H键的活化相当困难.如何实现甲烷直接高效催化转化被誉为催化领域的'皇冠式'课题.与经甲烷重整制合成气,然后通过F-T合成获取化学品的间接转化法相比,甲烷直接转化无论在物料、能量转换效率还是在设备成本、环境保护等方面都有着非常明显的优势.以甲烷氧化偶联以及非氧化偶联(如无氧芳构化等)为典型代表的甲烷直接转化研究不断取得突破,但其各自都存在一定的局限性.相比于热催化转化路径,电催化转化路径在许多方面存在着十分明显的优势:(1)反应条件温和,甚至在常温常压条件下也能实现甲烷电催化转化反应的发生;(2)可调控程度高,仅需调节关键实验参数如电压和电流等,就能实现对反应过程热力学以及动力学的调控;(3)能够利用可再生电能驱动甲烷转化反应的发生,可将低品阶的电能转化并存储为化学能.本文采用Ni中空纤维作为基底,在其表面构筑NiO活性层,将NiO@Ni中空纤维作为电极,实现了常温常压条件下的甲烷电催化转化.通过X射线衍射、扫描电镜、透射电镜等表征手段,确定了中空纤维特有的多孔三维结构、气体传输规律、NiO活性层分布状态等物化性质.通过电化学交流阻抗与循环伏安等测试手段,获得了电荷传递、电化学活性比表面积等电化学性质.恒电压电氧化甲烷研究发现,1%NiO@Ni中空纤维具有最优的催化活性,分别在1.44 V与1.46 V(vs.RHE)电势下获得54%的甲醇法拉第效率和85%的乙醇法拉第效率.     

Heterogeneous catalysis on the atomic scale

Information about the elementary processes underlying heterogeneous catalysis may be obtained by investigating well-defined single crystal surfaces. The success of this "surface science" approach for "'real" catalysis can be demonstrated, for example, with ammonia synthesis. The progress of catalytic reactions can be observed on an atomic scale by applying scanning tunneling microscopy and other surface physical techniques, as is shown with different examples in this paper: CO oxidation on a Pt(111) surface proceeds preferentially along the boundaries between adsorbed O and CO patches. Ru is practically inactive for the same reaction under lower pressure conditions but is transformed into RuO2 under atmospheric pressure conditions, where part of the surface Ru atoms function as coordinatively unsaturated sites (cus). In contrast, in the hydrogen oxidation reaction on Pt(111), an autocatalytic reaction step comes into prominence, and is responsible for the formation of propagating concentration patterns on the surface as a characteristic of nonlinear dynamics. Additionally, the limits of the concept of thermal equilibrium in surface rate processes are explored by applying ultrafast (femtosecond) laser techniques.     

铜系催化剂低压合成甲醇的原位红外光谱研究

本文运用本组设计和制作的高压原位红外池, 在反应条件下对铜催化剂的表面吸附态进行了原位检测。测到了表面吸附态和等的特征吸收峰。证实了CO和H_2在同一类活性中心上的竞争吸附, 并对其竞争吸附的能力作了考察。据此提出了该体系的吸附机理。在反应条件下, 检测到可判断为和M—O—CH_2OH等表面反应中间物的红外吸收峰。根据在不同温度和原料气组成下表面态的变化规律, 提出了合成反应是通过多途径进行以及CO_2对实现多途径起了重要作用的机理假设。     

Mechanism of atmospheric CO2 fixation in the cavities of a dinuclear cryptate

Using density functional theory (DFT) methods, we have investigated two possible mechanisms for atmospheric CO(2) fixation in the cavity of the dinuclear zinc(II) octa-azacryptate, and the subsequent reaction with methanol whereby this latter reaction transforms the (essentially) chemically inert CO(2) into useful products. The first mechanism (I) was proposed by Chen et al. [Chem.-Asian J. 2007, 2, 710], and involves the attachment of one CO(2) molecule onto the hydroxyl-cryptate form, resulting in the formation of a bicarbonate-cryptate species and subsequent reaction with one methanol molecule. In addition, we suggest another mechanism that is initiated via the attachment of a methanol molecule onto one of the Zn-centers, yielding a methoxy-cryptate species. The product is used to activate a CO(2) molecule and generate a methoxycarbonate-cryptate. The energy profiles of both mechanisms were determined, and we conclude that, while both mechanisms are energetically feasible, free energy profiles suggest that the scheme proposed by Chen et al. is most likely.     

Methanol‐Assisted Autocatalysis in Catalytic Methanol Synthesis

Catalytic methanol synthesis is one of the major processes in the chemical industry and may grow in importance, as methanol produced from CO₂ and sustainably derived H₂ are envisioned to play an important role as energy carriers in a future low‐CO₂‐emission society. However, despite the widespread use, the reaction mechanism and the nature of the active sites are not fully understood. Here we report that methanol synthesis at commercially applied conditions using the industrial Cu/ZnO/Al₂O₃ catalyst is dominated by a methanol‐assisted autocatalytic reaction mechanism. We propose that the presence of methanol enables the hydrogenation of surface formate via methyl formate. Autocatalytic acceleration of the reaction is also observed for Cu supported on SiO₂ although with low absolute activity, but not for Cu/Al₂O₃ catalysts. The results illustrate an important example of autocatalysis in heterogeneous catalysis and pave the way for further understanding, improvements, and process optimization of industrial methanol synthesis.     

Methanol-Assisted Autocatalysis in Catalytic Methanol Synthesis

Catalytic methanol synthesis is one of the major processes in the chemical industry and may grow in importance, as methanol produced from CO₂ and sustainably derived H₂ are envisioned to play an important role as energy carriers in a future low-CO₂-emission society. However, despite the widespread use, the reaction mechanism and the nature of the active sites are not fully understood. Here we report that methanol synthesis at commercially applied conditions using the industrial Cu/ZnO/Al₂O₃ catalyst is dominated by a methanol-assisted autocatalytic reaction mechanism. We propose that the presence of methanol enables the hydrogenation of surface formate via methyl formate. Autocatalytic acceleration of the reaction is also observed for Cu supported on SiO₂ although with low absolute activity, but not for Cu/Al₂O₃ catalysts. The results illustrate an important example of autocatalysis in heterogeneous catalysis and pave the way for further understanding, improvements, and process optimization of industrial methanol synthesis.