二价铜离子对人胰岛淀粉样蛋白(hIAPP)(11～28)多肽聚集的影响

人胰岛淀粉样蛋白(hIAPP)与Ⅱ型糖尿病(T2DM)密切相关,被认为是导致胰岛β细胞凋亡的致病因素之一,研究发现环境因素(如金属离子、pH值和温度等)对hIAPP的聚集过程有很大影响。本文采用多种生物物理的实验方法,研究了二价铜离子对hIAPP及其片段聚集的影响。原子力显微镜(AFM)和硫代黄素T(ThT)荧光的测量表明,铜离子能够明显地抑制hIAPP(11~28)聚集成纤维,其抑制程度随铜离子浓度的增加而明显加剧。显微傅里叶变换红外光谱(Micro-FTIR)的结果表明,铜离子能够抑制hIAPP多肽中α螺旋结构向β折叠的转变。另外,氨基酸定点突变实验结果表明,hIAPP(11~28)中的组氨酸(His18)可能对多肽的聚集行为和金属铜离子的相互作用起到了决定性的影响。     

Quantification of the binding constant of copper(II) to the amyloid-beta peptide

The amyloid beta (A beta) peptide of Alzheimer's disease binds copper(II), and the peptide-bound metal may be a source of reactive oxygen species and neurotoxicity. To circumvent peptide aggregation and reduce redox activity, there is growing interest in using metal chelates as drug therapeutics for AD, whose design requires accurate data on the affinity of A beta peptides for copper(II). Reports on Cu2+ binding to A beta range from approximately 10(5) to approximately 10(9); these values' being obtained for different peptide lengths (1-16, 1-28, 1-40, 1-42) at varying pH. Herein, we report that Cu2+'s binding to A beta(1-40) at 37 degrees C occurs in a 1:1 stoichiometry with a pH-dependent binding constant: 1.1 (+/-0.2) x 10 (9) M (-1) and 2.4 (+/-0.2) x 10 (9) M(-1) at pH 7.2 and 7.4, respectively. Under identical conditions, A beta(1-16) reveals a comparable binding constant, confirming that this portion of the peptide is the binding region. Several previously reported values can be reconciled with the current measurement by careful consideration of thermodynamics associated with the presence of competing ligands used to solubilize copper.     

Evidence of the existence of micelles in the fibrillogenesis of beta-amyloid peptide

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by the deposition of fibrillar deposits formed by the amyloid beta (Abeta) peptide. The most widely accepted model of fibrillogenesis of Abeta affirms that fibrillogenesis occurs in two distinct stages, nucleation and elongation. A modification of the model includes the formation of micelles. We have demonstrated with accurate experimental determinations the existence of aggregates with micellar properties (namely, the critical micellar concentration, CMC, and aggregation number). Values of the CMC were obtained by analysis of surface tension (17.5 microM) and changes in the fluorescence of pyrene (17.6 microM), respectively. The average aggregation number determined by fluorescence quenching was 25, and it was independent of peptide concentration. The presence of micelles implies that above the CMC all excess peptide is incorporated into micelles, and consequently, the monomer concentration is kept almost constant. Thus, micelles act as a peptide reservoir. Micelles are located on-pathway, since they serves as nucleation centers. Experimental data support the model, since above 17.7 microM the time of half-aggregation is independent of peptide concentration, and the overall reaction of the conversion of monomer peptide into fibril can be treated as an apparent first-order reaction.     

Biological tuning of synthetic tactics in solid-phase synthesis: application to A beta(1-42)

The beta-amyloid(1-42) sequence has long been recognized as a challenging target for solid-phase peptide synthesis. We found that the known disaggregating role of Met-35 sulfoxide could be capitalized during stepwise solid-phase assembly of the A beta(1-42) peptide chain to mitigate on-resin peptide chain aggregation, a presumed major source of synthetic difficulties. Furthermore, we demonstrate a hitherto-unreported on-resin reduction of the sulfoxide "aggregation protecting group" to allow for standard cleavage protocols, obviating a separate solution-phase sulfoxide reduction step.     

Beta-amyloid oligomerisation monitored by intrinsic tyrosine fluorescence

Aggregation of the peptide beta-amyloid is known to be associated with Alzheimer's disease. According to recent findings the most neurotoxic aggregates are the oligomers formed in the initial stages of the aggregation process. Here we use beta-amyloid's (Aβ's) intrinsic fluorophore tyrosine to probe the earliest peptide-to-peptide stages of aggregation, a region often merely labelled as a time lag, because negligible changes are observed by the commonly used probe ThT. Using spectrally resolved fluorescence decay time techniques and analysis we demonstrate how the distribution of 3 rotamer conformations of the single tyrosine in Aβ tracks the aggregation across the time lag and beyond according to the initial peptide concentration. At low Aβ concentrations (≤5 μM), negligible aggregation is observed and this is mirrored by little change in the fluorescence decay parameters, providing a useful baseline for comparison. At higher concentrations (≈50 μM), and contrary to what is generally accepted from ThT studies the rate of aggregation can be described by an exponential growth to a plateau in terms of the relative contributions of two of the three rotamers, with a characteristic aggregation time of ≈33 h.     

多肽荧光传感器检测铜离子

基于铜离子对罗丹明B标记的多肽的荧光猝灭作用, 构建了一种用于铜离子检测的荧光传感器. 利用共振光散射分析、 紫外-可见吸收光谱、 荧光寿命测试和圆二色光谱研究了铜离子检测的传感机理, 发现铜离子的加入诱导多肽结构发生变化而使罗丹明B荧光团彼此靠近, 从而导致铜离子与多肽之间发生聚集诱导荧光猝灭. 实验结果表明, 该传感器检测铜离子的线性范围为5×10^?4~1×10^?2 μmol/L和0.1~7 μmol/L, 检出限为0.29 nmol/L, 且拥有良好的选择性, 能用于湖水样品中铜离子的检测.     

Quantitative Aspects of Electrochemical Detection of Amyloid‐β Aggregation

The tyrosine based electrochemical analysis of synthetic amyloid‐β (Aβ) peptide – an analog of natural peptide implicated in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis – was applied for a quantitative estimation of peptide aggregation in vitro. The analysis was carried out by square wave voltammetry (SWV) on carbon screen printed electrodes (SPE). The electrooxidation peak current (I_p) for Aβ42 peptide in different aggregation states was directly compared with the size and structure of Aβ42 aggregates occurring in the analyzed sample. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) and thioflavin T (ThT) based fluorescence assay were employed to estimate the size and structure of Aβ42 aggregates. The I_p was found to decrease in a linear fashion when the average diameter of aggregates and the relative ThT fluorescence in Aβ42 solutions exceeded 35 nm and 3, respectively, while being nearly constant below these values. It was suggested that the electrooxidation current is mostly generated by peptide monomers and that a depletion of the monomer pool due to inclusion of Aβ42 molecules in aggregates is responsible for the decrease of electrooxidation current. The direct electrochemistry is emerging as a method complementary to methods based on aggregates’ detection and commonly employed for monitoring Aβ aggregation. The work further enlarges the basis for application of the cost‐effective and rapid electrochemical techniques, such as SWV on carbon SPE, to in vitro studies of Aβ aggregation.     

Application of an Electrochemical Method to Evaluation of Amyloid‐β Aggregation Inhibitors: Testing the RGKLVFFGR‐NH2 Peptide Antiaggregant

The aggregation of amyloid‐β peptide (Aβ) is believed to play a crucial role in the Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis and is considered as a therapeutic target for treating AD. The Aβ electrooxidation via a Tyr‐10 residue, sensitive to a depletion of a pool of Aβ monomers and oligomers in the course of Aβ aggregation, may be employed for testing natural and synthetic organic compounds (including short peptides) potentially able to inhibit the pathological Aβ aggregation (antiaggregants). In the present work, using the known peptide antiaggregant RGKLVFFGR‐NH₂ (OR2) and its scrambled variant KGLRVGFRF‐NH₂ as a control, we demonstrate that the electrochemical method based on electrooxidation of an Aβ42 Tyr‐10 residue, when combined with methods allowing for the evaluation of the Aβ42 aggregate structure and size, can provide essential information regarding the antiaggregant impact on Aβ42 aggregation. Electrochemical measurements were performed using square wave voltammetry on carbon screen printed electrodes whereas the Aβ42 aggregate structure and size were analyzed by means of the conventional thioflavin T (ThT) based fluorescence assay and dynamic light scattering. While inhibiting Aβ42 fibrillation as manifested by the unchanged level of ThT fluorescence, the OR2 peptide antiaggregant had no effect on the decrease of Aβ42 electrooxidation current in the course of Aβ42 aggregation. These observations suggest that OR2 does not stop the aggregation but redirects it into a pathway where amorphous rather than fibrillar aggregates are formed. Hence, the direct electrochemistry appears to offer a simple and cost‐effective approach for probing potential peptide antiaggregants, which is complementary to methods based on detecting Aβ aggregates.     

Early aggregation in prion peptide nanostructures investigated by nonlinear and ultrafast time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy

We report the characterization of early aggregates in the self-assembly of prion peptides using nonlinear and ultrafast time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy. The dye-labeled peptide and dye/peptide guest-host systems were used to demonstrate the feasibility of the new approach. By measuring the two-photon absorption cross-section, small aggregates of the dye labeled peptide were characterized. Ultrafast time-resolved fluorescence anisotropy spectroscopy reveals the packing state (microenvironment) of the probes to be tightly associated with aggregates and associated with aggregation progression of the peptides. Fluorescence intensity decay shows a correlation with growth of aggregates having a high level of structured beta-sheet content. A new binding ligand Cascade Yellow shows promise for beta-sheet recognition of prion peptide nanostructures. These findings may have implications for in vivo studies of neurotoxic aggregates targeting with fluorescence markers. Also, these results may provide insight into molecular design of peptide-based nanomaterials.     

Investigation of the mechanism of beta-amyloid fibril formation by kinetic and thermodynamic analyses

Extracellular beta-amyloid (A beta) deposit is considered as one of the primary factors that induce Alzheimer's disease (AD). The effects of various environmental factors, including temperature, ionic strength, and pH, on A beta (1-40) aggregation mechanisms were investigated in this study by spectrometry, isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), and hydrophobic fluorescence assay. In the aggregation process, the secondary structure of A beta (1-40) transforms to the beta-sheet conformation, which could be described as a two-state model. As the temperature and ionic strength increase, the conformation of A beta converts to the beta-sheet structure with an increased rate. Results of circular dichroism monitoring demonstrate that the rate constant of nucleation is smaller than that of elongation, and the nucleation is the rate-determining step during the overall A beta aggregation. The beta-sheet structure was stabilized by hydrophobic forces, as revealed by the ITC measurements. The different structural aggregates and forming pathways could be identified and discriminated at high and low ionic strengths, resulting in distinctive fibril conformations. Furthermore, the thermodynamic analysis shows that hydrophobic interaction is the major driving force in the nucleation step. Our study provides an insight into the discriminative mechanisms of beta-amyloid aggregation via kinetics and thermodynamics, especially the first reported thermodynamics information obtained by ITC.     

Solution NMR studies of the A beta(1-40) and A beta(1-42) peptides establish that the Met35 oxidation state affects the mechanism of amyloid formation

The pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease is characterized by the aggregation and fibrillation of the 40-residue A beta(1-40) and 42-residue A beta(1-42) peptides into amyloid plaques. The structural changes associated with the conversion of monomeric A beta peptide building blocks into multimeric fibrillar beta-strand aggregates remain unknown. Recently, we established that oxidation of the methionine-35 side chain to the sulfoxide (Met35(red) --> Met35(ox)) significantly impedes the rate of aggregation and fibrillation of the A beta peptide. To explore this effect at greater resolution, we carefully compared the (1)H, (15)N, and (13)C NMR chemical shifts of four A beta peptides that had the Met35 reduced or oxidized (A beta(1-40)Met35(red), A beta(1-40)Met35(ox), A beta(1-42)Met35(red), and A beta(1-42)Met35(ox)). With the use of a special disaggregation protocol, the highly aggregation prone A beta peptides could be studied at higher, millimolar concentrations (as required by NMR) in aqueous solution at neutral pH, remaining largely monomeric at 5 degrees C as determined by sedimentation equilibrium studies. The NOE, amide-NH temperature coefficients, and chemical shift indices of the (1)H alpha, (13)C alpha, and (13)C beta established that the four peptides are largely random, extended chain structures, with the Met35(ox) reducing the propensity for beta-strand structure at two hydrophobic regions (Leu17-Ala21 and Ile31-Val36), and turn- or bendlike structures at Asp7-Glu11 and Phe20-Ser26. Additional NMR studies monitoring changes that occur during aging at 37 degrees C established that, along with a gradual loss of signal/noise, the Met35(ox) significantly hindered upfield chemical shift movements of the 2H NMR signals for the His6, His13, and His14 side chains. Taken together, the present NMR studies demonstrate that the Met35(red) --> Met35(ox) conversion prevents aggregation by reducing both hydrophobic and electrostatic association and that the A beta(1-40)Met35(red), A beta(1-40)Met35(ox), A beta(1-42)Met35(red), and A beta(1-42)Met35(ox) peptides may associate differently, through specific, sharp changes in structure during the initial stages of aggregation.     

Mechanism of copper(II) inhibiting Alzheimer's amyloid beta-peptide from aggregation: a molecular dynamics investigation

The aggregation of an amyloid beta peptide (Abeta) into fibrils is a key pathological event in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Under certain conditions, Cu2+ markedly inhibits Abeta from aggregation and is considered as a potential factor in the normal brain preventing Abeta from aggregation. The possible mechanism of the inhibitory effect of Cu2+ was investigated for the first time by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. On the basis of the radial distribution function analysis of the MD data, a novel strategy, the Q function, was proposed to explore the binding sites of Cu2+ by evaluating the coordination priority of atoms in Abeta, and the [6-5-5] tri-ring 4N binding mode of the Cu2+-Abeta complexes was found. The mechanism of the conformational transition of Abeta from the beta conformation to distorted beta conformations, which destabilizes the aggregation of Abeta into fibrils, was also revealed. All the results provide helpful clues for an improved understanding of the role of Cu2+ in the pathogenesis of AD and contribute to the development of an anti-amyloid therapeutic strategy.     

4-Mercaptophenylacetic acid functionalized Mn2+-doped ZnS nanoparticles fluorescence quenching caused by the addition of Cu2+

This paper reports that 4-mercaptophenylacetic acid functionalized Mn²⁺-doped ZnS nanoparticles (4-MPAA-ZnS-Mn²⁺ NPs) as fluorescent probes for the detection of copper ions in solution. The fluorescence quenching was due to the aggregation of copper ions with 4-MPAA-ZnS-Mn²⁺ NPs. These aggregations were confirmed by using UV lamp, UV–visible spectroscopy and dynamic light scattering (DLS). These 4-MPAA-ZnS-Mn²⁺ NPs were applied as fluorescent probes to detect copper ions in aqueous solution.     

Spectroscopic investigations of metalloporphyrin-oligopeptide systems: evidence for peptide aggregation

Anionic pentapeptides consisting of a string of four glutamic acid residues terminated by either tyrosine (Glu4Tyr) or tryptophan (Glu4Trp) were synthesized, and their aggregation properties in buffered (pH = 7.0) aqueous solutions were investigated using two different approaches. In the first approach, the effects of the concentration of peptide used as its own probe (intrinsic probe) on its fluorescence emission, circular dichroism, surface tension, and solution pH yielded similar critical peptide concentrations of around 175 microM. This particular concentration was taken as evidence for peptide aggregation. In the second approach, peptide aggregation was investigated using cationic metalloporphyrins, tetrakis(N-methyl-4-pyridyl)porphyrin (Pd(II)TMPyP(4+) and Zn(II)TMPyP(4+)), as extrinsic probes. The effect of peptide concentration on porphyrin ground-state absorption confirmed peptide aggregation, but at a lower critical peptide concentration near 125 microM. This difference was attributed to the possible distortion introduced by the association of one (or more) large metalloporphyrin molecule with the peptide aggregates. Evidence for peptide aggregation was also demonstrated from the effect of peptide concentration on Pd(II)TMPyP(4+) triplet-state decay. The fast component (k(f), associated with electron transfer from the target Tyr and Trp residues to the porphyrin triplet state) was found to be independent of peptide concentration, implying no noticeable effect of peptide aggregation on the electron-transfer event. This was attributed to the fact that species formed by excitation of porphyrin associated with ion-pair complexes or bound to peptide aggregates and the diffusion together of the separate T(1) and peptide entities in the bulk phase are kinetically similar. On the other hand, the slower component (k(s)) of the decay, which is associated with the diffuse formation of an encounter complex between the free peptide and T(1) porphyrin (bulk phase), was peptide-dependent and displayed a critical peptide concentration near 125 microM, above which it became practically independent of peptide concentration. This invariance of k(s) was taken as an indication that the free peptide concentration in the bulk phase remains constant above 125 microM, the concentration at which peptide molecules prefer to associate as aggregates.     

Introduction of d‐Glutamate at a Critical Residue of Aβ42 Stabilizes a Prefibrillary Aggregate with Enhanced Toxicity

The amyloid beta peptide 42 (Aβ42) is an aggregation‐prone peptide that plays a pivotal role in Alzheimer′s disease. We report that a subtle perturbation to the peptide through a single chirality change at glutamate 22 leads to a pronounced delay in the β‐sheet adoption of the peptide. This was accompanied by an attenuated propensity of the peptide to form fibrils, which was correlated with changes at the level of the fibrillary architecture. Strikingly, the incorporation of d ‐glutamate was found to stabilize a soluble, ordered macromolecular assembly with enhanced cytotoxicity to PC12 cells, highlighting the importance of advanced prefibrillary Aβ aggregates in neurotoxicity.     

Estimation of electrokinetic and hydrodynamic global properties of relevant amyloid‐beta peptides through the modeling of their effective electrophoretic mobilities and analysis of their propensities to aggregation

Neuronal activity loss may be due to toxicity caused by amyloid‐beta peptides forming soluble oligomers. Here amyloid‐beta peptides (1–42, 1–40, 1–39, 1–38, and 1–37) are characterized through the modeling of their experimental effective electrophoretic mobilities determined by a capillary zone electrophoresis method as reported in the literature. The resulting electrokinetic and hydrodynamic global properties are used to evaluate amyloid‐beta peptide propensities to aggregation through pair particles interaction potentials and Brownian aggregation kinetic theories. Two background electrolytes are considered at 25°C, one for pH 9 and ionic strength I = 40 mM (aggregation is inhibited through NH₄OH) the other for pH 10 and I = 100 mM (without NH₄OH). Physical explanations of peptide oligomerization mechanisms are provided. The effect of hydration, electrostatic, and dispersion forces in the amyloidogenic process of amyloid‐beta peptides (1–40 and 1–42) are quantitatively presented. The interplay among effective charge number, hydration, and conformation of chains is described. It is shown that amyloid‐beta peptides (1–40 and 1–42) at pH 10, I = 100 mM and 25°C, may form soluble oligomers, mainly of order 2 and 4, after an incubation of 48 h, which at higher times evolve and end up in complex structures (protofibrils and fibrils) found in plaques associated with Alzheimer's disease.     

Development of fluorescent film sensors for the detection of divalent copper

Monolayers of several peptide lipids at air-water and air-solid interfaces were prepared using Langmuir and Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) film techniques, and tested as fluorescent sensors for copper ions in aqueous phase. In one method, both the ionophore and the fluorophore were in the same molecule (lipid A), so intramolecular interaction was responsible for the fluorescence quenching of monolayers of this lipid. In the other method, ionophore and fluorophore were located on two different molecules (lipids B and C) so the intramolecular coupling does not exist; instead the fluorescence quenching was realized by a through-space interaction mechanism. Several experimental techniques, including pi-A isotherm, epifluorescence microscopy, and absorption and emission spectroscopies were used to study the different characteristics of copper ion effect on the properties of the lipid monolayers. Additionally, the fluorescence quenching properties of the Langmuir monolayers were found to be transferred to the one-layer LB films. On LB films, the fluorescence response presented a clear selectivity for copper ions in comparison with several other transition metal ions. Further, an excellent reversibility was observed: the fluorescence was switched OFF by immersing the solid substrate in copper ion solution and ON by washing with HCl solution. The intermolecular approach used here seems to be a very flexible and general method to design surface-oriented fluorescent sensors to meet different analytic purposes.     

不同介质中蜂毒素聚集/解聚集的超分子调控及相关机理

利用荧光光谱和圆二色谱等技术手段研究了蜂毒素在2-羟丙基环糊精、氯化钠或 DOPC 调控下的聚集/解聚集过程、相关机理以及不同介质中α-helix的含量. 研究结果表明, 蜂毒素在不同介质中的聚集能力、构象以及和介质分子相互作用力均存在很大差别.     

Hydrolysis of the amyloid beta-peptide (A beta) 1-40 between Asp23-Val24 produces non-aggregating fragments. An electrospray mass spectrometric study

The aggregation of full-length (residues 1-40) amyloid beta-peptide (A beta) and fragments corresponding to residues 1-23 and 24-40 was studied by electrospray mass spectrometry, using gramicidin as a non-aggregating reference. Following a lag period, A beta(1-40) at 140 microM concentration aggregates with apparent first-order kinetics. Under acidic conditions A beta(1-40) undergoes spontaneous cleavage between Asp23-Val24 and to a lesser extent also at two other Asp-X motifs. Incubation in acidic H(2)18O showed incorporation of 18O in fragment A beta(1-23), confirming that the Asp23-Val24 peptide bond had been hydrolyzed. Incubation of synthetic A beta(1-23) and A beta(24-40) peptides with A beta(1-40) showed that A beta(24-40) remained in solution for several months, that A beta(1-23) partly disappeared from solution, whereas A beta(1-40) completely disappeared. Further, treatment of sedimentable aggregates formed after co-incubation of the three peptides with hexafluoro-2-propanol or formic acid recovered the intensity of A beta(1-40). These data support previous studies showing that the region of A beta encompassing residues 16-24 is necessary for aggregation into amyloid fibrils.     

The effect of Trp83 mutant on the properties of CopC

CopC, a protein involved in copper resistance, is essentially constituted by two sheets forming a Greek key beta barrel motif. The aromatic ring of Trp83, sandwiched between the two beta sheets, has numerous contacts with residues in strands beta and stabilizes the protein fold. In the paper Trp83 was mutated to Leu to study the effect of this mutation on CopC by means of fluorescence spectra and UV spectra. The experiments indicate that the mutation bind Cu(2+) with a decreased formation constant of 3.95 x 10(11) M(-1) in 20 mM PB buffer at pH 7.0; mutagenesis make hydrophobic region to be exposed to an extent. Compared with the wild, thermal stability of the mutant was shown to decrease by stronger fluorescence of TNS at 80 degrees C. The important role of aromatic residue in structure is exhibited.