微型飞行器低雷诺数空气动力学

微型飞行器(MAVs)设计绝不是常规飞行器在尺度上的简单缩小,面临许多技术难题.其中微型飞行器低雷诺数空气动力学是其最为根本的技术瓶颈之一,也是当前受到广泛关注的热点之一.本文紧密结合微型飞行器技术,对这一领域中所面临的低雷诺数空气动力学问题和近两年来该方向国内一些新的进展进行了较为详细的介绍.按照MAVs飞行方式和结构特性进行分类,简单介绍微型飞行器研究中的低$Re$数空气动力学问题.首先介绍了二维和三维固定翼低雷诺数空气动力学问题:包括层流分离泡,翼型升力系数小攻角非线性效应,静态迟滞效应,以及低$Re$数小展弦比机翼气动特性.第2,介绍了拍动翼低雷诺数空气动力学方面的研究工作.包括前人提出的昆虫低$Re$数下获得高升力的多种非定常拍动翼飞行机制:Wagner效应、Weis-Fogh效应(clap-and-fling)、延迟失速效应(delayedstall)、Kramer效应(rotational forces)、尾迹捕获效应(wakecapture)、附加质量效应(addedmass)等.以及国内学者近几年在拍动翼方面取得的一些研究成果.第3,介绍了柔性翼低雷诺数气动问题.研究表明柔性翼对于固定翼微型飞行器提高抗阵风能力,拍动翼微型飞行器产生足够的升力和推力.最后简单介绍了可变形翼(morphingwing)微型飞行器方面的一些研究工作,指出微型飞行器技术可以通过采用可变形翼设计,突破众多的技术瓶颈.另一方面,可变形翼概念可以通过在低成本,低速的MAVs上进行飞行试验,获得非常好的验证平台.      

近空间高超声速飞行器气动特性研究的若干关键问题

在30～70 km空域机动飞行的高超声速飞行器的优点是可以耦合利用所处空域的空气产生的升力和高速飞行的离心力进行远距离机动滑翔飞行,具有重要的实用价值.尽管过去数十年在高超声速流动研究方面取得显著进展,但在设计研究近空间远程滑翔的高超声速飞行器方面仍然存在许多挑战,特别是对特定飞行条件下的流动机理了解不清楚.本文介绍了作者研究团队在开展近空间高超声速飞行器有关的关键气动问题方面的研究进展,主要包括:建立了近空间高超声速飞行的流动模型,发展了系统的相关计算空气动力学方法,针对高空高速飞行条件下稀薄气体效应和真实气体效应的耦合作用影响研究了合适的滑移边界条件,考虑了不同组分存在条件下的温度、速度和压力的滑移效应影响;提出了飞行器气动外形的动态优化方法,获得了可工程实用化的高升阻比飞行器气动外形;建立了高速飞行器动稳定性理论,在实现高超声速飞行器动态稳定飞行方面取得重大进展;最后讨论了高超声速飞行器设计中进一步需要关注的若干关键技术和科学问题、可能解决的途径及其所涉及的学科发展方向.     

近空间高超声速飞行器气动特性研究的若干关键问题

在30$\sim$70km空域机动飞行的高超声速飞行器的优点是可以耦合利用所处空域的空气产生的升力和高速飞行的离心力进行远距离机动滑翔飞行,具有重要的实用价值.尽管过去数十年在高超声速流动研究方面取得显著进展,但在设计研究近空间远程滑翔的高超声速飞行器方面仍然存在许多挑战,特别是对特定飞行条件下的流动机理了解不清楚.本文介绍了作者研究团队在开展近空间高超声速飞行器有关的关键气动问题方面的研究进展,主要包括:建立了近空间高超声速飞行的流动模型,发展了系统的相关计算空气动力学方法,针对高空高速飞行条件下稀薄气体效应和真实气体效应的耦合作用影响研究了合适的滑移边界条件,考虑了不同组分存在条件下的温度、速度和压力的滑移效应影响;提出了飞行器气动外形的动态优化方法,获得了可工程实用化的高升阻比飞行器气动外形;建立了高速飞行器动稳定性理论,在实现高超声速飞行器动态稳定飞行方面取得重大进展;最后讨论了高超声速飞行器设计中进一步需要关注的若干关键技术和科学问题、可能解决的途径及其所涉及的学科发展方向.      

吸气式高超声速飞行器动力学建模研究进展

高超声速飞行以及飞行器机身/超燃冲压发动机一体化设计的典型特点导致吸气式高超声速飞行器具有不同于常规飞行器的飞行动力学特性,而飞行器总体设计和控制系统设计都必须考虑这些新动力学特性的影响,因此为吸气式高超声速飞行器建立能够包含这些新特性的飞行动力学模型非常重要.本文对吸气式高超声速飞行器动力学建模的相关研究进行了总结: 首先,简略地回顾了从超燃冲压发动机研究到飞行器系统研究发展历程; 其次,详细阐述了宽飞行包线、高超声速效应、超燃冲压发动机约束、气动/推进耦合和气动弹性效应等吸气式高超声速飞行器的新动力学特性;然后,讨论了在选择坐标系、抽象飞行器外形、建立弹性机身模型、建立空气动力模型、建立超燃冲压发动机系统模型以及推导运动方程等每个具体步骤中需要考虑的问题和可用的方法;最后,评述了现有吸气式高超声速飞行器动力学模型,并指明了未来发展方向.      

小型飞行器空气动力学

对小型飞行器设计中涉及的空 气动力学问题进行了综述.描述了雷诺数和展弦比对固定翼飞行器的设计以及飞行 性能的影响.在低雷诺数飞行范围,翼型上边界层的特性对飞行器的设计尤为关键. 本文讨论了大量有关层流边界层(包括层流分离泡影响)的实验,作为例子,列举了几 个此飞行雷诺数范围的小型低空无人驾驶飞行器(UAVs).此外,对扑动翼推进的理论 模型进行了简述;其范围涵盖了早期的准定常附着流模型,以及后来计及非定常尾涡、 流动分离以及气动弹性等效应的模型.文中还介绍了那些与理论互补并最终导致扑 翼机设计成功的实验.     

虚拟飞行中气动、运动和控制耦合的数值模拟技术

随着计算机科学和计算流体力学的发展, 以非定常数值模拟为核心, 开展气动/运动/控制等多学科耦合的“数值虚拟飞行” 模拟成为可能. 数值虚拟飞行有助于飞行器设计师在设计之初和整个设计过程中分析和评估飞行器的非线性飞行力学和稳定性与控制性能. 该文综述了国内外数值虚拟飞行中“气动/运动/控制” 耦合的一体化模拟技术的研究进展, 分析了其中的关键科学和技术问题, 重点介绍了气动/运动/控制耦合一体化计算方法, 并介绍了作者在一体化耦合计算方法方面取得的进展及初步应用情况. 最后探讨了数值虚拟飞行中的一些挑战性问题, 并对未来发展趋势进行了展望. 可以预期, 随着E 级计算的到来, 在不久的将来, 数值虚拟飞行将给新型飞行器设计带来革命性的变化.      

近空间高速飞行器气动特性研究与布局设计优化

高空高速飞行中的黏性干扰效应、真实气体效应和稀薄气体效应成为决定未来空天飞行器能否实现安全飞行、精确控制和制导的重大基础科学问题.介绍了黏性干扰效应、真实气体效应和稀薄气体效应对高空高速飞行器气动特性影响,回顾了飞行器气动布局设计优化的发展过程,给出典型高速高升阻比飞行器气动布局设计及优化的结果.      

功能集成式无定形陆空粒子飞行器

为了提高无人机的灵活性与其在特殊环境中的适应能力,受细胞生物学中细胞集体聚集和迁移的启发,提出了功能集成式无定形陆空粒子飞行器,采用模块化和陆空两用设计理念,设计有飞行控制型与功能型两种粒子,各粒子之间通过电磁铁控制松散耦合。飞行控制型粒子保障飞行器在空中的稳定飞行;功能型粒子包含多种不同功能的无定形粒子,满足如摄影、测距、红外生命探测、水质检测等需求。执行飞行任务时,可根据实际需求耦合两种类型粒子形成集群粒子飞行器,最优化执行飞行任务;在陆地上,粒子通过"膨胀-收缩"循环实现粒子地面运动。该粒子飞行器尺寸小、结构稳定、机动性高,具有较大的民用价值与军用价值。     

高超音速飞行器及其关键技术简论

简要评述了高超音速飞行器及其关键技术, 包括: 高超音速飞行的定义、高超音速流动的特征、高超飞行覆盖范围、高超飞行器蒙皮温度、以及高超飞行设计特点; 高超飞行器的背景;高超飞行器研制的发展简史, 及经验与思考; 吸气式高超飞行器典型设计过程、发展战略、技术规划、和关键技术领域.      

基于实验设计方法的高超声速飞机前缘型线优化分析

为探索前缘线变化对吸气式高超声速飞机气动性能的影响,基于一种旁侧进气布局翼身融合体构型,在飞行马赫数6,攻角4°和高度26 km的巡航飞行条件下,结合运用增量修正参数化设计方法、均匀实验设计方法和计算流体力学模拟,分析了飞行器前缘型线与其升阻力系数及纵向压心等性能参数间的关系.计算结果表明,前缘线形状对飞行器升阻力系数明显高于其对纵向压心影响,设计空间范围内升力系数变化约21.3%,阻力系数变化约31.8%,升阻比变化范围约10.63%,但相对压心变化范围仅为3.87%.在此基础上,通过对典型构型物面压力分布进行分析,发现前缘线形状适当弯曲可利用飞行器下表面侧壁压缩产生的高压气流,利用二者的耦合效应使飞行器获得额外的升力增量.      

Measurement of Thrust and Lift Forces Associated With Drag of Compliant Flapping Wing for Micro Air Vehicles Using a New Test Stand Design

Compliant wing designs have the potential of improving flapping wing Micro-Air Vehicles (MAVs). Designing compliant wings requires a detailed understanding of the effect of compliance on the generation of thrust and lift forces. The low force and high-frequency measurements associated with these forces necessitated a new versatile test stand design that uses a 250 g load cell along with a rigid linear air bearing to minimize friction and the dynamic behavior of the test stand while isolating only the stationary thrust or lift force associated with drag generated by the wing. Moreover, this stand is relatively inexpensive and hence can be easily utilized by wing designers to optimize the wing compliance and shape. The frequency response of the wing is accurately resolved, along with wing compliance on the thrust and lift profiles. The effects of the thrust and lift force generated as a function of flapping frequency were also determined. A semi-empirical aerodynamic model of the thrust and lift generated by the flapping wing MAV on the new test stand was developed and used to evaluate the measurements. This model accounted for the drag force and the effects of the wing compliance. There was good correlation between the model predictions and experimental measurements. Also, the increase in average thrust due to increased wing compliance was experimentally quantified for the first time using the new test stand. Thus, our measurements for the first time reveal the detrimental influence of excessive compliance on drag forces during high frequency operation. In addition, we were also able to observe the useful effect of compliance on the generation of extra thrust at the beginning and end of upstrokes and downstrokes of the flapping motion.     

Numerical simulation of a flapping four-wing micro-aerial vehicle

A three-dimensional numerical simulation of a four-wing (two wings on each side, one on top of another) flapping micro-aerial vehicle (FMAV), known as the Delfly micro, is performed using an immersed boundary method Navier–Stokes finite volume solver at Reynolds numbers of 5500 (forward flight condition). The objective of the present investigation is to gain an insight to the aerodynamics of flapping wing biplane configuration, by making an analysis on a geometry that is simplified, yet captures the major aspects of the wing behavior. The fractional step method is used to solve the Navier–Stokes equations. Results show that in comparison to the Delfly II flapping kinematics (a similar FMAV configuration but smaller flapping stroke angles), the Delfly-Micro flapping kinematics provides more thrust while maintaining the same efficiency. The Delfly-Micro biplane configuration generates more lift than expected when the inclination angle increases, due to the formation of a uniform leading edge vortex. Estimates of the lift produced in the forward flight conditions confirm that in the current design, the MAV is able to sustain forward flight. The potential effect of wing flexibility on the aerodynamic performance in the biplane configuration context is investigated through prescribed flexibility in the simulations. Increasing the wing׳ spanwise flexibility increases thrust but increasing chordwise flexibility causes thrust to first increase and then decrease. Moreover, combining both spanwise and chordwise flexibility outperforms cases with only either spanwise or chordwise flexibility.     

Methodologies for weight estimation of fixed and flapping wing micro air vehicles

One of the important steps in the sizing process of fixed and flapping wing micro air vehicles (MAVs) is weight estimation of the electrical and structural components. In order to enhance the flight performance and endurance of MAVs, it is required to carefully estimate their weight with a minimum error. In this study, methodologies to estimate the weight of fixed and flapping wing MAVs are proposed. After dividing the total weight of the MAV into weights of structural and electrical components, these two weights are separately identified. The weight of the MAV electrical components is estimated by using engineering design techniques and the weight of the structure is identified by using statistical and computational methods. The proposed methodology for structural weight estimation is based on calculating the percentage of the used material in the construction of different parts of MAVs and then presenting the weight of each part in terms of the wing surface. The proposed computational method gives the exact estimation for the weight of each structure component, such as wing, tail, fuselage, and etc. Based on the offered method for weight estimation of MAVs, the weight estimation of a fixed wing MAV with inverse Zimmerman planform and a flapping wing MAV named “Thunder I” are experimentally shown. This developed methodology gives guidelines for weight estimation and determination of the structural weight percentages in order to design and fabricate efficient fixed and flapping wing MAVs.     

Analysis of non-symmetrical flapping airfoils

Simulations have been done to assess the lift, thrust and propulsive efficiency of different types of non-symmetrical airfoils under different flapping configurations. The variables involved are reduced frequency, Strouhal number, pitch amplitude and phase angle. In order to analyze the variables more efficiently, the design of experiments using the response surface methodology is applied. Results show that both the variables and shape of the airfoil have a profound effect on the lift, thrust, and efficiency. By using non- symmetrical airfoils, average lift coefficient as high as 2.23 can be obtained. The average thrust coefficient and efficiency also reach high values of 2.53 and 0.61, respectively. The lift production is highly dependent on the airfoil＇s shape while thrust production is influenced more heavily by the variables. Efficiency falls somewhere in between. Two-factor interac- tions are found to exist among the variables. This shows that it is not sufficient to analyze each variable individually. Vorticity diagrams are analyzed to explain the results obtained. Overall, the S1020 airfoil is able to provide relatively good efficiency and at the same time generate high thrust and lift force. These results aid in the design of a better ornithopter＇s wing.     

扑翼飞行器带翼刀机翼气动特性实验研究

通过进行微型扑翼飞行器低速风洞试验,研究了带弯度机翼下翼面翼刀对扑翼飞行器升阻特性的影响。文中进行了带翼刀机翼和不带翼刀机翼在不同迎角下的风洞吹风试验。试验结果表明,带翼刀机翼升力系数大于不带翼刀机翼升力系数,从而证明了翼刀可以阻止机翼下表面气流展向流动,起到增加机翼升力的作用。当扑翼在小迎角飞行时,带翼刀机翼可以有效地提高扑翼的气动效率,改善扑翼的飞行性能。研究结果可为带翼刀机翼在扑翼飞行器上的应用提供技术支持。     

Effect of acoustic resonance on the dynamic lift of tube arrays

The effect of acoustic resonance on the dynamic lift force acting on the central tube in square and normal triangle tube arrays is investigated experimentally. For each array pattern three different tube spacing ratios, corresponding to small, intermediate and large spacing ratios, are tested. The resonant sound field in the tube array is found to cause two main effects. First, it generates a “sound-induced” dynamic lift due to the resonant acoustic pressure distribution on the surface of the tube, and secondly, it synchronizes vorticity shedding from the tubes and thereby enhances the hydrodynamic lift force due to vortex shedding. The combined effect of these two unsteady lift forces depends on the phase shift between them, which is dictated by the frequency ratio of the acoustic mode to the natural vortex shedding frequencies. When the flow velocity is increased during the coincidence resonance range, the phase shift increases rapidly and therefore the effects of the two lift components change from reinforcing to counteracting each other. For the pre-coincidence lock-on range, the frequency ratio remains larger than unity and the two lift components always reinforce each other. Numerical simulations are also performed to compute the sound-induced lift force, and sound-enhancement coefficients are developed to estimate the effect of sound on the vortex shedding forces. The simulation and experimental results are implemented in a simplified design guide, which can be used to evaluate the dynamic lift forces acting on the tubes during acoustic resonances.     

Flight dynamics and control of flapping-wing MAVs: a review

This paper provides a thorough review of the significant work done so far in the area of flight dynamics and control of flapping-wing micro-air-vehicles (MAVs). It provides the background necessary to do research in that area. Furthermore, it raises questions that need to be addressed in the future. The three main blocks constituting the flight dynamic framework of flapping MAVs are reviewed. These blocks are the flapping kinematics, the aerodynamic modeling, and the body dynamics. The design and parametrization of the flapping kinematics necessary to produce high-control authority over the MAV, as well as design of kinematics suitable for different flight conditions, are reviewed. Aerodynamic models used for analysis of flapping flight are discussed. Particular attention is given to the physical aspects captured by these models. The issues and consequences of averaging the dynamics and neglecting the wing inertia are discussed. The dynamic stability analysis of flapping MAVs is usually performed by either averaging, linearization and subsequent analysis or using Floquet theory. Both approaches are discussed. The linear and nonlinear control design techniques for flapping MAVs are also reviewed and discussed.     

Characterization of the Mechanics of Compliant Wing Designs for Flapping-Wing Miniature Air Vehicles

Flapping-wing miniature air vehicles (MAVs) offer multiple performance benefits relative to fixed-wing and rotary-wing MAVs. This investigation focused on the problem of designing compliant wings for a flapping-wing MAV where only the spar configuration was varied to achieve improved performance. Because the computational tools needed for identifying the optimal spar configuration for highly compliant wing designs have yet to be developed, a new experimental methodology was developed to explore the effects of spar configuration on the wing performance. This technique optically characterized the wing deformations associated with a given spar configuration and used a customized test stand for measuring lift and thrust loads on the wings during flapping. This revealed that spar configurations achieving large and stable deformed volume during the flapping cycle provided the best combination of lift and thrust. The approach also included a sensitivity and reproducibility analysis on potential spar configurations. Results indicated that the wing shape and corresponding lift and thrust performance were very sensitive to slight changes in volume and 3-D shape associated with slight variations in the spar locations.     

Design,manufacturing, and flight testing of a fixed wing micro air vehicle with Zimmerman planform

An optimized and comprehensive method is used to design and manufacture a fixed wing micro air vehicle (MAV) with Zimmerman planform. The design process includes four stages which are the specification of the flight mission, determination of the best aspect ratio, identification of the optimum wing loading and thrust loading values, and estimation of the weight of the structural components of the MAV. To do this, various statistical and analytical methods are utilized. Based on an aerodynamic analysis, the results show that an optimum aspect ratio that maximizes the performance of the Zimmerman MAV for a well-defined cruise speed is determined. Considering six possible flights, a constraint analysis is performed and an optimum wing loading value is determined. It is shown that the computational method is beneficial to determine the exact masses for the structural components including the wing, fuselage, and vertical tail. Using the 3D panel method, the determination of the shape of the reflexed airfoil for the MAV is successfully done by minimizing the drag force and the angle of attack to use less powerful motor and avoid any stall effect, respectively. A stability analysis is then performed to check the safe flight of the designed vehicle. During test flight, the results show that the designed Zimmerman MAV satisfies the pre-defined specification. The final characteristics of the manufactured MAV are: wingspan of 44 cm, weight of 450 g, aspect ratio of 1.51, cruise speed of 20 m/s, and flight endurance of 20 min.     

Numerical investigation on aerodynamic performance of a bionic flapping wing

This paper numerically studies the aerodynamic performance of a bird-like bionic flapping wing. The geometry and kinematics are designed based on a seagull wing,in which flapping, folding, swaying, and twisting are considered. An in-house unsteady flow solver based on hybrid moving grids is adopted for unsteady flow simulations. We focus on two main issues in this study, i.e., the influence of the proportion of down-stroke and the effect of span-wise twisting. Numerical results show that the proportion of downstroke is closely related to the efficiency of the flapping process. The preferable proportion is about 0.7 by using the present geometry and kinematic model, which is very close to the observed data. Another finding is that the drag and the power consumption can be greatly reduced by the proper span-wise twisting. Two cases with different reduced frequencies are simulated and compared with each other. The numerical results show that the power consumption reduces by more than 20%, and the drag coefficient reduces by more than 60% through a proper twisting motion for both cases. The flow mechanism is mainly due to controlling of unsteady flow separation by adjusting the local effective angle of attack. These conclusions will be helpful for the high-performance micro air vehicle(MAV) design.