Non-linear normal modes,invariance, and modal dynamics approximations of non-linear systems

Non-linear systems are here tackled in a manner directly inherited from linear ones, that is, by using proper normal modes of motion. These are defined in terms of invariant manifolds in the system's phase space, on which the uncoupled system dynamics can be studied. Two different methodologies which were previously developed to derive the non-linear normal modes of continuous systems — one based on a purely continuous approach, and one based on a discretized approach to which the theory developed for discrete systems can be applied-are simultaneously applied to the same study case-an Euler-Bernoulli beam constrained by a non-linear spring-and compared as regards accuracy and reliability. Numerical simulations of pure non-linear modal motions are performed using these approaches, and compared to simulations of equations obtained by a classical projection onto the linear modes. The invariance properties of the non-linear normal modes are demonstrated, and it is also found that, for a pure non-linear modal motion, the invariant manifold approach achieves the same accuracy as that obtained using several linear normal modes, but with significantly reduced computational cost. This is mainly due to the possibility of obtaining high-order accuracy in the dynamics by solving only one non-linear ordinary differential equation.     

Non-linear behaviour of free-edge shallow spherical shells: Effect of the geometry

Non-linear vibrations of free-edge shallow spherical shells are investigated, in order to predict the trend of non-linearity (hardening/softening behaviour) for each mode of the shell, as a function of its geometry. The analog for thin shallow shells of von Kármán's theory for large deflection of plates is used. The main difficulty in predicting the trend of non-linearity relies in the truncation used for the analysis of the partial differential equations (PDEs) of motion. Here, non-linear normal modes through real normal form theory are used. This formalism allows deriving the analytical expression of the coefficient governing the trend of non-linearity. The variation of this coefficient with respect to the geometry of the shell (radius of curvature R, thickness h and outer diameter 2a) is then numerically computed, for axisymmetric as well as asymmetric modes. Plates (obtained as R→∞) are known to display a hardening behaviour, whereas shells generally behave in a softening way. The transition between these two types of non-linearity is clearly studied, and the specific role of 2:1 internal resonances in this process is clarified.     

The effects of kinematic condensation on internally resonant forced vibrations of shallow horizontal cables

This study aims at comparing non-linear modal interactions in shallow horizontal cables with kinematically non-condensed vs. condensed modeling, under simultaneous primary external and internal resonances. Planar 1:1 or 2:1 internal resonance is considered. The governing partial-differential equations of motion of non-condensed model account for spatio-temporal modification of dynamic tension, and explicitly capture non-linear coupling of longitudinal/vertical displacements. On the contrary, in the condensed model, a single integro-differential equation is obtained by eliminating the longitudinal inertia according to a quasi-static cable stretching assumption, which entails spatially uniform dynamic tension. This model is largely considered in the literature. Based on a multi-modal discretization and a second-order multiple scales solution accounting for higher-order quadratic effects of a infinite number of modes, coupled/uncoupled dynamic responses and the associated stability are evaluated by means of frequency- and force-response diagrams. Direct numerical integrations confirm the occurrence of amplitude-steady or -modulated responses. Non-linear dynamic configurations and tensions are also examined. Depending on internal resonance condition, system elasto-geometric and control parameters, the condensed model may lead to significant quantitative and/or qualitative discrepancies, against the non-condensed model, in the evaluation of resonant dynamic responses, bifurcations and maximal/minimal stresses. Results of even shallow cables reveal meaningful drawbacks of the kinematic condensation and allow us to detect cases where the more accurate non-condensed model has to be used.     

Existence and stability of bushes of vibrational modes for octahedral mechanical systems with Lennard-Jones potential

The special non-linear dynamical regimes, “bushes of normal modes”, can exist in the N-particle Hamiltonian systems with discrete symmetry (Physica D 117 (1998) 43). The dimension of the bush can be essentially less than that of the whole mechanical system. One-dimensional bushes represent the similar non-linear normal modes introduced by Rosenberg. A given bush can be excited by imposing the appropriate initial conditions, and the energy of the initial excitation turns out to be trapped in this bush.In the present paper, we consider all possible vibrational bushes in the simple octahedral mechanical system and discuss their stability under assumption that the interactions between particles are described by the Lennard-Jones potential.     

Non-linear modal analysis of a rotating beam

The free non-linear vibration of a rotating beam has been considered in this paper. The von Karman strain-displacement relations are implemented. Non-linear equations of motion are obtained by Hamilton’s principle. Results are obtained by applying the method of multiple scales to a set of discretized ordinary differential equations which obtained by using the Galerkin discretization method. This set contains coupling between transverse and axial displacements as quadratic and cubic geometric non-linearities. Non-linear normal modes and non-linear natural frequencies with or without internal resonance are observed. In the internal resonance case, the internal resonance between two transverse modes and between one transverse and one axial mode are explored. Obtained results in this study are compared with those obtained from literature. The stability and some dynamic characteristics of the non-linear normal modes such as the phase portrait, Poincare section and power spectrum diagrams have been inspected. It is shown that, for the first internal resonance case, the beam has one stable or degenerate uncoupled mode and either: (a) one stable coupled mode, (b) one unstable coupled mode, (c) two stable and one unstable coupled modes, (d) three stable coupled modes, and (e) one stable coupled mode. On the other hand, for the second internal resonance case, the beam has one stable or unstable or degenerate uncoupled mode and either: (a) two stable coupled modes, (b) two unstable coupled modes, and (c) one stable coupled mode depending on the parameters.     

Resonant non-linear normal modes. Part I: analytical treatment for structural one-dimensional systems

Approximations of the resonant non-linear normal modes of a general class of weakly non-linear one-dimensional continuous systems with quadratic and cubic geometric non-linearities are constructed for the cases of two-to-one, one-to-one, and three-to-one internal resonances. Two analytical approaches are employed: the full-basis Galerkin discretization approach and the direct treatment, both based on use of the method of multiple scales as reduction technique. The procedures yield the uniform expansions of the displacement field and the normal forms governing the slow modulations of the amplitudes and phases of the modes. The non-linear interaction coefficients appearing in the normal forms are obtained in the form of infinite series with the discretization approach or as modal projections of second-order spatial functions with the direct approach. A systematic discussion on the existence and stability of coupled/uncoupled non-linear normal modes is presented. Closed-form conditions for non-linear orthogonality of the modes, in a global and local sense, are discussed. A mechanical interpretation of these conditions in terms of virtual works is also provided.     

Non-linear normal modes and their bifurcation of a two DOF system with quadratic and cubic non-linearity

The non-linear normal modes (NNMs) and their bifurcation of a complex two DOF system are investigated systematically in this paper. The coupling and ground springs have both quadratic and cubic non-linearity simultaneously. The cases of ω₁:ω₂=1:1, 1:2 and 1:3 are discussed, respectively, as well as the case of no internal resonance. Approximate solutions for NNMs are computed by applying the method of multiple scales, which ensures that NNM solutions can asymtote to linear normal modes as the non-linearity disappears. According to the procedure, NNMs can be classified into coupled and uncoupled modes. It is found that coupled NNMs exist for systems with any kind of internal resonance, but uncoupled modes may appear or not appear, depending on the type of internal resonance. For systems with 1:1 internal resonance, uncoupled NNMs exist only when coefficients of cubic non-linear terms describing the ground springs are identical. For systems with 1:2 or 1:3 internal resonance, in additional to one uncoupled NNM, there exists one more uncoupled NNM when the coefficients of quadratic or cubic non-linear terms describing the ground springs are identical. The results for the case of internal resonance are consistent with ones for no internal resonance. For the case of 1:2 internal resonance, the bifurcation of the coupled NNM is not only affected by cubic but also by quadratic non-linearity besides detuning parameter although for the cases of 1:1 and 1:3 internal resonance, only cubic non-linearity operate. As a check of the analytical results, direct numerical integrations of the equations of motion are carried out.     

On the accuracy of the multiple scales method for non-linear vibrations of doubly curved shallow shells

Non-linear free and forced vibrations of doubly curved isotropic shallow shells are investigated via multi-modal Galerkin discretization and the method of multiple scales. Donnell’s non-linear shallow shell theory is used and it is assumed that the shell is simply supported with movable edges. By deriving two different forms of the stress function, the equations of motion are reduced to a system of infinite non-linear ordinary differential equations with quadratic and cubic non-linearities. A quadratic relation between the excitation and the fundamental frequency is considered and it is shown that, although in case of hardening non-linearities the results resemble those found via numerical integration or continuation softwares, in case of softening non-linearity the solution breaks down as the amplitude becomes larger than the thickness. Results reveal that, expressing the relation between the excitation and fundamental frequency in this form, which was considered by many researchers as a useful tool in analyzing strong non-linear oscillators, yields in spurious results when the non-linearity becomes of softening type.     

Two-to-one resonant multi-modal dynamics of horizontal/inclined cables. Part II: Internal resonance activation,reduced-order models and nonlinear normal modes

Resonant multi-modal dynamics due to planar 2:1 internal resonances in the non-linear, finite-amplitude, free vibrations of horizontal/inclined cables are parametrically investigated based on the second-order multiple scales solution in Part I [1] (in press). The already validated kinematically non-condensed cable model accounts for the effects of both non-linear dynamic extensibility and system asymmetry due to inclined sagged configurations. Actual activation of 2:1 resonances is discussed, enlightening on a remarkable qualitative difference of horizontal/inclined cables as regards non-linear orthogonality properties of normal modes. Based on the analysis of modal contribution and solution convergence of various resonant cables, hints are obtained on proper reduced-order model selections from the asymptotic solution accounting for higher-order effects of quadratic nonlinearities. The dependence of resonant dynamics on coupled vibration amplitudes, and the significant effects of cable sag, inclination and extensibility on system non-linear behavior are highlighted, along with meaningful contributions of longitudinal dynamics. The spatio-temporal variation of non-linear dynamic configurations and dynamic tensions associated with 2:1 resonant non-linear normal modes is illustrated. Overall, the analytical predictions are validated by finite difference-based numerical investigations of the original partial-differential equations of motion.     

The construction of non-linear normal modes for systems with internal resonance

A numerical method, based on the invariant manifold approach, is presented for constructing non-linear normal modes for systems with internal resonances. In order to parameterize the non-linear normal modes of interest, multiple pairs of system state variables involved in the internal resonance are kept as ‘seeds’ for the construction of the multi-mode invariant manifold. All the remaining degrees of freedom are then constrained to these ‘seed’, or master, variables, resulting in a system of non-linear partial differential equations that govern the constraint relationships, and these are solved numerically. The computationally-intensive solution procedure uses a combination of finite difference schemes and Galerkin-based expansion approaches. It is illustrated using two examples, both of which focus on the construction of two-mode models. The first example is based on the analysis of a simple three-degree-of-freedom example system, and is used to demonstrate the approach. An invariant manifold that captures two non-linear normal modes is constructed, resulting in a reduced order model that accurately captures the system dynamics. The methodology is then applied to a larger order system, specifically, an 18-degree-of-freedom rotating beam model that features a three-to-one internal resonance between the first two flapping modes. The accuracy of the non-linear two-mode reduced order model is verified by comparing time-domain simulations of the two DOF model and the full system equations of motion.     

Evaluation of multi-modes for finite-element models: systems tuned into 1:2 internal resonance

A non-linear multi-mode of vibration arises from the coupling of two or more normal modes of a non-linear system under free-vibration. The ensuing motion takes place on a 2M-dimensional invariant manifold in the phase space of the system, M being the number of coupled linear modes; the manifold contains a stable equilibrium point of interest, and at that point is tangent to the 2M-dimensional eigenspace of the system linearised about that equilibrium point, which characterises the corresponding M linear modes. On this manifold, M pairs of state variables govern the dynamics of the system; that is, the system behaves like an M-degree-of-freedom oscillator. Non-linear multi-modes may therefore come about when the system exhibits non-linear coupling among generalised co-ordinates. That is the case, for instance, of internal resonance of the 1:2 or 1:3 types, for systems with quadratic or cubic non-linearities, respectively, in which a four-dimensional manifold should be determined. Evaluation of non-linear multi-modes poses huge computational challenges, which is the explanation for very limited reports on the subject in the literature so far. The authors developed a procedure to determine the non-linear multi-modes for finite-element models of plane frames, using the method of multiple scales. This paper refers to the case of quadratic non-linearities. The results obtained by the proposed technique are in good agreement with those coming out from direct integration of the equations of motion in the time domain and also with those few available in the literature.     

Characterization of bifurcating non-linear normal modes in piecewise linear mechanical systems

The non-linear modal properties of a vibrating 2-DOF system with non-smooth (piecewise linear) characteristics are investigated; this oscillator can suitably model beams with a breathing crack or systems colliding with an elastic obstacle. The system having two discontinuity boundaries is non-linearizable and exhibits the peculiar feature of a number of non-linear normal modes (NNMs) that are greater than the degrees of freedom. Since the non-linearities are concentrated at the origin, its non-linear frequencies are independent of the energy level and uniquely depend on the damage parameter. An analysis of the NNMs has been performed for a wide range of damage parameter by employing numerical procedures and Poincaré maps. The influence of damage on the non-linear frequencies has been investigated and bifurcations characterized by the onset of superabundant modes in internal resonance, with a significantly different shape than that of modes on fundamental branch, have been revealed.     

Broadband passive targeted energy pumping from a linear dispersive rod to a lightweight essentially non-linear end attachment

We examine non-linear resonant interactions between a damped and forced dispersive linear finite rod and a lightweight essentially non-linear end attachment. We show that these interactions may lead to passive, broadband and on-way targeted energy flow from the rod to the attachment, which acts, in essence, as non-linear energy sink (NES). The transient dynamics of this system subject to shock excitation is examined numerically using a finite element (FE) formulation. Parametric studies are performed to examine the regions in parameter space where optimal (maximal) efficiency of targeted energy pumping from the rod to the NES occurs. Signal processing of the transient time series is then performed, employing energy transfer and/or exchange measures, wavelet transforms, empirical mode decomposition and Hilbert transforms. By computing intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) of the transient responses of the NES and the edge of the rod, and examining resonance captures that occur between them, we are able to identify the non-linear resonance mechanisms that govern the (strong or weak) one-way energy transfers from the rod to the NES. The present study demonstrates the efficacy of using local lightweight non-linear attachments (NESs) as passive broadband energy absorbers of unwanted disturbances in continuous elastic structures, and investigates the dynamical mechanisms that govern the resonance interactions influencing this passive non-linear energy absorption.     

Transmissibility of non-linear output frequency response functions with application in detection and location of damage in MDOF structural systems

Transmissibility is a well-known linear system concept that has been widely applied in the diagnosis of damage in various engineering structural systems. However, in engineering practice, structural systems can behave non-linearly due to certain kinds of damage such as, e.g., breathing cracks. In the present study, the concept of transmissibility is extended to the non-linear case by introducing the Transmissibility of Non-linear Output Frequency Response Functions (NOFRFs). The NOFRFs are a concept recently proposed by the authors for the analysis of non-linear systems in the frequency domain. A NOFRF transmissibility-based technique is then developed for the detection and location of both linear and non-linear damage in MDOF structural systems. Numerical simulation results verify the effectiveness of the new technique. Experimental studies on a three-storey building structure demonstrate the potential to apply the developed technique to the detection and location of damage in practical MDOF engineering structures.     

On the coupling of non-linear normal modes

The phenomenon of internal resonance is known as the exchange of energy between the modes and the existence of coupled-mode response under a single-mode excitation. This phenomenon is observed whenever a non-linear normal mode loses its stability, called the modal coupling. The details of modal coupling are formulated in the free vibrations of two-degree-of-freedom systems, and compared with internal resonance. The theory is based on the structural change in Poincaré map due to the stability change of normal modes. It is shown that every change in stability of normal modes gives rise to a pitchfork or a period-doubling bifurcation. The functional form is derived to compute the coupled modes by the method of harmonic balance. Examples are given to describe the procedure of stability analysis of non-linear normal modes, to compute the coupled modes, and then to demonstrate that results of internal resonances can be derived by model coupling. Other examples are given to demonstrate that the results of some modal couplings cannot be obtained by internal resonances.     

On damped non-linear dynamic systems with many degrees of freedom

Non-linear mass-spring-damper systems with many degrees of freedom are studied; all springs and/or all dampers may be strongly non-linear. It is shown that the ultimate state of completely damped systems is always rest, that of incompletely damped systems may be either rest or a periodic normal mode motion. Necessary and sufficient conditions are given for the existence of classical normal mode motion in completely or incompletely damped systems. When the system is linear, these reduce to known results found by Rayleigh and generalized by Caughey and O'Kelly.     

Non-linear interactions in the flexible multi-body dynamics of cable-supported bridge cross-sections

An elastic section model is proposed to analyze some characteristic issues of the cable-supported bridge dynamics through an equivalent planar multi-body system. The quadratic non-linearities of the four-degree-of-freedom model essentially describe the geometric coupling which may strongly characterize the dynamic interactions of the bridge deck and a pair of identical suspension cables (hangers or stays). The linear modal solution shows that the flexural and torsional modes of the deck (global modes) typically co-exist with symmetric or anti-symmetric modes of the cables (local modes). The combinations of parameters which realize remarkable 2:1:1 internal resonance conditions among one of the global modes (with higher natural frequency) and two local modes (with lower and close natural frequencies) are obtained by virtue of a multiparameter perturbation method. The non-linear response of the resonant systems shows that the global deck motion – directly forced at primary resonance by an external harmonic load – can parametrically excite the local cable motion, when the deck vibration amplitude overcomes the critical value at which a period-doubling bifurcation occurs. The relevant effects of both viscous damping and internal detuning on the instability boundaries are parametrically investigated. All the internal resonance conditions as well as the critical vibration amplitudes are expressed as an explicit, though asymptotically approximate, function of the structural parameters.     

On the sensitivity of non-generic bifurcation of non-linear normal modes

It is shown that a non-generic bifurcation of non-linear normal modes may occur if the ratio of linear natural frequencies is near r-to-one, r=1,3,5,… . Non-generic bifurcations are explicitly obtained in the systems having certain symmetry, as observed frequently in literatures. It is found that there are two kinds of non-generic bifurcations, super-critical and sub-critical. The normal mode generated by the former kind is extended to large amplitude, but that by the latter kind is limited to small amplitude which depends on the difference between two linear natural frequencies and disappears when two frequencies are equal. Since a non-generic bifurcation is not generic, it is expected generically that if a system having a non-generic bifurcation is perturbed then the non-generic bifurcation disappears, and generic bifurcation appears in the perturbed system. Examples are given to verify the change in bifurcations and to obtain the stability behavior of normal modes. It is found that if a system having a super-critical non-generic bifurcation is perturbed, then two new normal modes are generated, one is stable, but the other unstable, implying a saddle-node bifurcation. If the system having a sub-critical non-generic bifurcation is perturbed, then no new normal mode is generated, but there is an interval of instability on a normal mode, implying two saddle-node bifurcations on the mode. Application of this study is discussed.     

Non-linear modal analysis for beams subjected to axial loads: Analytical and finite-element solutions

A rigorous derivation of non-linear equations governing the dynamics of an axially loaded beam is given with a clear focus to develop robust low-dimensional models. Two important loading scenarios were considered, where a structure is subjected to a uniformly distributed axial and a thrust force. These loads are to mimic the main forces acting on an offshore riser, for which an analytical methodology has been developed and applied. In particular, non-linear normal modes (NNMs) and non-linear multi-modes (NMMs) have been constructed by using the method of multiple scales. This is to effectively analyse the transversal vibration responses by monitoring the modal responses and mode interactions. The developed analytical models have been crosschecked against the results from FEM simulation. The FEM model having 26 elements and 77 degrees-of-freedom gave similar results as the low-dimensional (one degree-of-freedom) non-linear oscillator, which was developed by constructing a so-called invariant manifold. The comparisons of the dynamical responses were made in terms of time histories, phase portraits and mode shapes.     

A new method for the non-linear deflection analysis of an infinite beam resting on a non-linear elastic foundation

The aim of this paper is to develop a new method of analyzing the non-linear deflection behavior of an infinite beam on a non-linear elastic foundation. Non-linear beam problems have traditionally been dealt with by semi-analytical approaches that involve small perturbations or by numerical methods, such as the non-linear finite element method. In this paper, in contrast, a transformed non-linear integral equation that governs non-linear beam deflection behavior is formulated to develop a new method for non-linear solutions. The proposed method requires an iteration to solve non-linear problems, but is fairly simple and straightforward to apply. It also converges quickly, whereas traditional non-linear solution procedures are generally quite complex in application. Mathematical analysis of the proposed method is performed. In addition, illustrative examples are presented to demonstrate the validity of the method developed in the present study.