Measurement of inhomogeneous strain fields by fiber optic sensors embedded in a polymer composite material

Experimental results of strain field measurement in polymer composite specimens by Bragg grating fiber optic strain sensors embedded in the material are considered. A rectangular plate and a rectangular plate with “butterfly” shaped cuts are used as specimens. The results of uniaxial strain experiments with rectangular plates show that fiber optic strain sensors can be used to measure the strains, and these results can be used to calculate the calibration coefficients for fiber optic strain sensors. A gradient strain field is attained in a plate with cuts, and the possibility of measuring this field by fiber optic strain sensors is the main goal of this paper. The results of measurements of gradient strain fields in the plate with cuts are compared with the results obtained by using the three-dimensional digital optic system Vix-3D and with the results of numerical computations based on finite element methods. It is shown that the difference between the strain values obtained by these three methods does not exceed 5%.     

Experimental Measurement and Numerical Validation of Bone Cement Mantle Strains of an In Vitro Hip Replacement Using Optical FBG Sensors

Experimental pre-clinical tests associated with numeric models of cemented implants are important for screening of new implants in the market. The aim of this study was to measure strain profiles and maximum temperature polymerization inside a cement mantle of an in vitro cemented hip reconstruction using optical fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors. For this purpose, a hip femoral prosthesis was instrumented with 12 FBG sensors, three in each aspect of the femur, anterior, posterior, medial and lateral. These were positioned at the proximal, middle and distal part of the cement mantle relatively to the stem. Another sensor was placed in the lateral-proximal region of the mantle to measure the maximum temperature of cement polymerization. The strains measured were compared with those obtained with a Finite Element model, both for quaistatic mechanical loading. The results show that the experimental technique used can measure strains inside the cement mantle with good correlation, R²?=?0.970, with the numerical model results. The results present a maximum temperature of polymerization around 110°C inside of cement at proximal region. It was also observed strain concentration in lateral aspect of the femur in polymerization process. The procedure hereby explained can be used to improve experimental pre-clinical tests to measure the strain distribution inside the cement mantle as well as residual strain and temperature variation along with time, as a result of the curing process of cement.     

埋入式封装的光纤光栅传感器应变传递分析

推导了布拉格光纤光栅传感器所测应变与实际结构应变的关系,得出了平均应变传递率并与实际试验结果进行比较. 根据应变传递率确定了光纤的临界粘接长度，并推导了多层粘接时的应变传递情况，讨论了影响应变传递率的因素. 结果表明，光纤光栅的粘贴长度必须大于临界粘贴长度，且光纤光栅传感器所测应变需要加以修正才能得到实际结构应变.     

A fiber optic sensor for transverse strain measurement

A fiber optic sensor capable of measuring two independent components of transverse strain is described. The sensor consists of a single Bragg grating written into high-birefringent, polarization-maintaining optical fiber. When light from a broadband source is used to illuminate the sensor, the spectra of light reflected from the Bragg grating contain two peaks corresponding to the two orthogonal polarization modes of the fiber. Two independent components of transverse strain in the core of the fiber can be computed from the changes in wavelength of the two peaks if axial strain and temperature changes in the fiber are zero or known. Experiments were performed to determine the response of the sensor by loading an uncoated sensor in diametral compression over a range of fiber orientations relative to the loading. The results of these experiments were used with a finite element model to determine a calibration matrix relating the transverse strain in the sensor to the wavelength shifts of the Bragg peaks. The performance of the sensor was then verified by measuring the transverse strains produced by loading the fiber in a V-groove fixture.     

Fiber Bragg Grating Strain Rosette

0Introduction OpticalFiberBraggGratings(FBGs)sensorshavefounddiverseapplicationsinvariousfields sincetheirdevelopmentinthelate1980s.FBGshaveanumberofsignificantadvantagesoverother fiberopticsensorssuchasmultiplexing,self referencing,optical,mechanicalandt…     

Experimental Evaluation of Strain Shielding in Distal Femur in Revision TKA

Theoretical concerns about the use of cemented and press-fit stems in revision total knee arthroplasty (TKA) include stress shielding with adverse effects on prosthesis fixation. Radiological studies have showed distal femoral bone resorption after revision TKA. The revision with use of stems can place abnormal stresses. These stresses can promote the effect of bone stress shielding and may contribute to bone loss. Experimental quantification of strain shielding in the distal synthetic femur following TKA is the main purpose of the present study. Three different constructs of TKA were assessed. The first construct included a stemless femoral component. The other two included a press-fit and a cemented femoral stem. Cortical bone strains were measured experimentally with tri-axial strain gauges in synthetic femurs before and after in-vitro knee surgery. The difference between principal strains of implanted and intact femur was calculated for each strain gauge position. This study indicates that the use of stems in distal femur changes the distribution and magnitude of bone strains. The press-fit stem provoked relevant bone area (stem length) subjected to strain shielding and also originated the highest reduction of strains in the distal region, which can potentially induce bone resorption. The stemless implanted femur produced minor bone strain changes relatively to the intact femur. The use of distal femur stems increases initial stability in the bone, but the observed reduction of strains in this region, relative to the intact femur, provokes strain shielding that can induce bone resorption and may compromise the long term implant stability.     

Embedded optical fiber Bragg grating sensor in a nonuniform strain field: Measurements and simulations

This paper investigates the use of embedded optical fiber Bragg gratings to measure strain near a stress concentration within a solid structure. Due to the nature of a stress concentration (i.e., the strong nonuniformity of the strain field), the assumption that the grating spectrum in reflection remains a single peak with a constant bandwidth is not valid. Compact tension specimens including a controlled notch shape are fabricated, and optical fiber Bragg gratings with different gage lengths are embedded near the notch tip. The form of the spectra in transmission varies between gages that are at different distances from the notch tip under given loading conditions. This variation is shown to be due to the difference in the distribution of strain along the gage length. By using the strain field measured using electronic speckle pattern interferometry on the specimen surface and a discretized model of the grating, the spectra in transmission are then calculated analytically. For a known strain distribution, it is then shown that one can determine the magnitude of the applied force on the specimen. Thus, by considering the nonuniformity of the strain field, the optical fiber Bragg gage functions well as an embedded strain gage near the stress concentration.     

Enhanced measurement of strain distributions

A theoretical approach is presented that uses multiple strain gages to accurately measure complicated strain distributions. The technique is based on the method of weighted residuals in conjunction with measured strain data and is applicable for arbitrary in-plane strain distributions. Conventional measurements using strain gages are shown to represent a particular case of the approach presented. The experimental characterization of unidimensional strain fields is discussed in detail. Two approaches are presented; these are based on linear and quadratic approximations of the strain field. The strain distribution for two important practical problems is evaluated assuming ideal conditions to assess the performance of the proposed approach. In both cases, the simulated results demonstrate that measurement error resulting from the finite size of a strain gage may be reduced. That is, a larger strain gage may be used for a given maximum admissible error. The method also allows a minimal error of measured nonlinear strains.     

基于准分布式FBG传感器的均质材料内部应变测试的试验研究

采用环氧树脂材料作为试验载体,使用没有任何保护性封装的、运用波分复用技术在同一光纤上刻入三个布拉格光栅的基础FBG传感器,来监测液体树脂流动及固化成型的全过程,并使用固化成型的环氧树脂板进行三点弯曲试验。将所得数据与有限元模拟数值解进行比较,来验证在去除封装、将传感器自身应变影响降到最低的情况下,FBG传感网络是否依然能够有效地反映出试验对象在各种情况下的内部应变。本文给出了FBG光纤光栅在逐级静力荷载加载下材料内部三点弯曲的应变图,并通过数值计算分析了未封装光纤在复合材料内部受力过程中的力学性能。     

光纤光栅传感器对钢筋混凝土内部应变的测量及温度效应的研究

本文应用光纤光栅传感器实现了对钢筋混凝土试件内部应变的测量．试验不仅就应用光纤光栅进行混凝土结构内部应变测量的技术、工艺进行研究，还通过设计温度控制试验，考察了光纤光栅传感器的温度补偿问题，以及横向应变对测量结果的影响．     

Experimental and Computational Investigation of Low-Impact Velocity and Quasi-Static Failure of PMMA

An investigation of the low velocity impact and quasi-static failure of polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) based on global and local post-impact strain measurements was conducted. Local strains were obtained from surface mounted Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors, and they were combined with global measurements from quasi-static indentation and low-velocity impact experiments, and finite-element analyses to obtain detailed maps of how failure spatially initiates and evolves. For both loading regimes, the interactions between the host PMMA specimens and the sensors played a crucial role in the evolution of residual strains. A mapping of the strains clearly shows that strains decrease radially, from high values near the point of impact to far-field values. Sensors located in critical locations, which are near the impact region, had the highest residual strains prior to PMMA fracture. Furthermore, it was determined that strain transfer to the sensor is strongly influenced by the bonding conditions at the specimen’s surface. Due to the debonding of the sensor and the frictional effects associated with the bonding agent, compressive residual strains occurred on the rear-surface. Hence, a detailed understanding of how strain evolves due to sensor-host interactions and catastrophic fracture can be obtained, which can potentially be used to mitigate damage in PMMA for a range of strain-rates.     

A generic stress-strain model for metallic materials with two-stage strain hardening behaviour

Constitutive equations are often used to describe the stress-strain behaviour of metallic materials. This allows the execution of parametric studies for various purposes. Despite the large number of developed stress-strain equations, all frequently applied ones fail to accurately describe a strain hardening behaviour in two distinct stages, which many metallic materials tend to show. For this purpose, the authors developed a new stress-strain model, based on the well-known Ramberg-Osgood equation, which focuses on this two-stage strain hardening behaviour. This article describes the model and its analytical background, along with a graphical method to derive suited model parameters. To validate the proposed methodology, it is applied on stress-strain curves of two high-strength steels, an aluminium alloy and a duplex stainless-steel alloy. Whereas a good correspondence for the stainless-steel alloy is confined to limited plastic strains, excellent agreements are observed for the steels and the aluminium alloy. Following the proposed method, it was possible to obtain model parameter values that give a good correspondence within a detectable strain range.     

Model for measurement of thermal expansion coefficient of concrete by fiber optic sensor

The existence of a coating on an optical fiber results in a difference between the strain of the matrix concrete and that sensed by the embedded fiber optic sensor. This paper deals with the theoretical model for measurement of thermal expansion coefficient of concrete by embedded fiber optic sensor. The fiber core, the coating of the optical fiber, and the matrix concrete were all supposed to be elastic. And the bonding surfaces were supposed to be intact, that is to say, there is no relative slip deformation at the interface between the matrix concrete and the coating of the optical fiber, and that between the coating and the fiber core. Based on these assumptions, a theoretical model was developed for measurement of thermal expansion coefficient of concrete. Some experiments were done to verify the validation of the theoretical model. And the comparison indicates a good agreement between the experimental and theoretical results.     

Fabry-Perot sensors for dynamic studies using spectrally based passive quadrature signal processing

This paper describes a simple, optically passive detection scheme for in-line Fabry-Perot etalon (ILFE) sensors that is also useful for intrinsic Fabry-Perot (IFP) and extrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometer (EFPI) sensors. This detection scheme is based on two spectrally shiffed Bragg wavelengths from in-line Bragg gratings to produce two quadrature phase shifted signals from the spectral transfer function of the Fabry-Perot sensor. Using the amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) from an erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) as a low-coherence, high-power broad-band source, the passive detection technique is used to demonstrate the use of ILFE sensors in high strain rate dynamics studies. This study is designed to characterize the high strain rate response of optical fiber sensors and test their ability to monitor dynamic strain changes resulting from one-dimensional stress wave propagation.     

On the homogenization of metal matrix composites using strain gradient plasticity

The homogenized response of metal matrix composites（MMC） is studied using strain gradient plasticity.The material model employed is a rate independent formulation of energetic strain gradient plasticity at the micro scale and conventional rate independent plasticity at the macro scale. Free energy inside the micro structure is included due to the elastic strains and plastic strain gradients. A unit cell containing a circular elastic fiber is analyzed under macroscopic simple shear in addition to transverse and longitudinal loading. The analyses are carried out under generalized plane strain condition. Micro-macro homogenization is performed observing the Hill-Mandel energy condition,and overall loading is considered such that the homogenized higher order terms vanish. The results highlight the intrinsic size-effects as well as the effect of fiber volume fraction on the overall response curves, plastic strain distributions and homogenized yield surfaces under different loading conditions. It is concluded that composites with smaller reinforcement size have larger initial yield surfaces and furthermore,they exhibit more kinematic hardening.     

On the transverse compression response of Kevlar KM2 using fiber-level finite element model

Flexible textile composites like woven Kevlar fabrics are widely used in high velocity impact (HVI) applications. Upon HVI they are subjected to both longitudinal tensile and transverse compressive loads. To understand the role of transverse properties, the single fiber and tow transverse compression response (SFTCR and TTCR) of Kevlar KM2 fibers are numerically analyzed using plane strain finite element (FE) models. A finite strain formulation with a minimum number of 84 finite elements is determined to be required for the fiber cross section to capture the finite strain SFTCR through a mesh convergence study. Comparison of converged numerical solution to the experimental results indicates the dominant role of geometric stiffening at finite strains due to growth in contact width. The TTCR is studied using a fiber length scale FE model of a single tow comprised of 400 fibers transversely loaded between rigid platens. This study along with micrographs of yarn after mechanical compaction illustrates fiber spreading and fiber–fiber contact friction interactions are important deformation mechanisms at finite strains. The TTCR is also studied using homogenized yarn level models with properties from the literature. Comparison of TTCR between fiber length scale and homogenized yarn length scale models indicate the need for a nonlinear material model for homogenized approaches to accurately predict the transverse compression response of the fabrics.     

Fiber Bragg Grating Based Stress Measurement for Films Deposited onto Cylindrical Surfaces

Shape of a substrate directly influences the residual stress in thin film coatings. In this study, a method involving Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) was used to measure residual stress in a film deposited on a cylindrical surface. An FBG has a cylindrical surface and its Bragg wavelength shifts continuously when a film is being deposited on the sensor’s surface. Herein, we calculated the residual strain in the film from the wavelength shift of the Bragg grating by studying the transfer of the residual strain of the cylindrical film to the core of the optical fiber substrate during deposition. By employing the energy method, we derived expressions that related the strain in the core of fiber to the residual strain in single layer films, bilayer films, and multilayer cylindrical films. As an example, we demonstrated a detailed process for testing the stress and the strain distribution across a nickel (Ni) film electrodeposited on the surface of a nickel-phosphorus (Ni-P) alloy-coated optical fiber. The results indicated that the measured strain repeatability was less than 500 μ? and the strain sensitivity was more than ?2 × 10^?3 pm/μ?, when the thickness of the film was less than 5 μm. The negative sign on the strain sensitivity indicated that the tensile strain in the film produced compressive strain in the core of the optical fiber. The FBG sensor system has high test speed, and integrates measurement and signal transmission. This method provides an effective and convenient approach to measure stress in a film deposited on a cylindrical surface.     

A Finite Element Analysis of a Tapered Flat Sheet Tensile Specimen

A uniaxial tension sheet metal coupon with a tapered instead of a straight gage section has been used for centering the location of diffuse neck and for measuring sheet stretchability in a non-uniform strain field. A finite element analysis of such a tensile coupon made of automotive steel sheet metals has been carried out to assess the effect of the tapered gage section geometry and material plastic strain hardening characteristics on the development of local plastic deformation pattern and local stress state, especially beyond the onset of diffuse necking but before localized necking. In particular, the finite element analysis was used in this study to evaluate the accuracy and reliability of an experimental data analysis method for estimating the post-necking effective plastic stress-strain curve based on the direct local surface axial plastic strain measurements for base metal, heat-affected zone, and weld metals of a dual-phase steel DP600. It is concluded that the estimated lower and upper bounds of the effective stress-strain curve at large strains are not satisfactory for low strain-hardening materials such as heat-affected zone and weld metals with the tapered tension coupons. A simple correction method utilizing only the additional local surface strain measurement in the transverse direction is proposed and it is shown to be effective in correcting the estimated effective stress-strain curve of dual-phase steel weld metals obtained for two tapered gage section geometries.     

光纤光栅传感网络应用于玻璃纤维复合材料构件损伤检测的试验研究

将光纤光栅传感网络埋入玻璃纤维复合材料试件后,通过无损试件与有损试件的准静态弯曲对比试验研究,分析了测量过程中反映损伤位置以及损伤程度的光纤光栅参数。然后使用ANSYS有限元软件对其进行数值模拟计算,并将数值模拟的结果与试验测得的结果相对比,验证了应用光纤光栅传感网络利用准静态加载方法测量损伤的可行性以及准确性。本文研究结果可为利用FBG光纤传感网络对实际工程中复合材料结构的在线健康监测提供实验基础。     

埋光纤光栅传感器智能土木结构应变监测

采取与土木工程施工特点相适应的操作工艺与保护方法，将光纤Bragg光栅传感器埋入钢筋混凝土结构中，分别在实验室和实际工程施工现场对混凝土内部的应变进行了测量。实验中光纤Bragg光栅传感性能良好，能够监测混凝土内部应变状态，显示出成活率高、绝对值测量、寿命长等优势，为建立基于光纤传感器的结构健康监测系统奠定了基础。