A specific slit die rheometer for extruded starchy products. Design,validation and application to maize starch

A novel in-line rheometer, called Rheopac, has been designed and built in order to study the rheological behaviour of starchy products or, more generally, of products sensitive to a thermomechanical treatment. It is based on the principle of a twin channel, using a balance of feed rate between each of them, in order to make local shear rate vary in the measuring section without changing the flow conditions into the extruder. A wide range of shear rate could be reached and measurements were performed more swiftly than with a classical slit die. The viscous behaviour of maize starch was studied by taking into account the influence of the thermomechanical history, which modified the starch degradation and thus led to important variations in the viscosity. Experimental results were satisfactorily compared to previously published models.Nomenclature E activation energy (J · mol^–1) - h channel depth (m) - h ₁ depth under the piston valve in channel 1 (m) - h ₂ depth under the piston valve in channel 2 (m) - K consistency (Pa·s ⁿ ) - K ₀ reference consistency (Pa·s ⁿ ) - L total channel length (m) - L _p length of the piston valve (m) - MC moisture content (wet basis) - n power law index - N screw rotation speed (rpm) - P ₀ entrance pressure (Pa) - P _e pressure at the entry of the piston valve (Pa) - Q ₁ flow rate in channel 1 (m3 · s^–1) - Q ₂ flow rate in channel 2 m³·s^–1) - Q _T total flow rate (m3 · s^–1) - R constant of perfect gas (8.314 J·mol^–1·K^–1) - SME specific mechanical energy (kWh · t^–1) - T temperature (°C) - T _a absolute temperature (K) - T _b barrel temperature (°C) - T _d die temperature (°C) - T _p product temperature (°C) - w channel width (m) - W energetical term (J·m^–3) - viscosity (Pa · s) - [gh ₀] intrinsic viscosity of native starch (ml·g^–1) - [] intrinsic viscosity (ml·g^–1) - shear rate (s^–1) - shear rate in measuring section (s^–1) - maximum shear rate (s^–1)     

Liquid sheet and film atomization: a comparative experimental study

Liquid atomization processes are too complex to allow a purely theoretical study. Therefore experiments are necessary to quantify droplets production. In our problem, the replacement of an original complicated flow by a simpler one, i.e. liquid metal and high gas velocity by water and low air velocity, has led to a relation for the droplet diameter, thanks to dynamical similarity and order of magnitude estimates. Observation of a liquid film disruption development by high speed photography gives some informations about the mechanism of break-up in action. Granulometric measurements by video image analysis have specified the previous dimensionless relation for the mass median diameter. Measurements concern both the film and the sheet atomization, it is shown that the control of the liquid layer thickness is of major importance to control the quality of sprays.List of symbols d droplet diameter (m) - d _mm mass median droplet diameter (m) - g acceleration due to the gravity (ms^–2) - H _g , H _l gas slit width, liquid film thickness (m) - dimensionless parameters - Q ₁ = H ₁ V ₁ liquid flow rate (m²s^–1) - Reynolds number - T time(s) - V _g , V _l gas and liquid velocity (m s^–1) - W _c channel width (m) - Weber number - _g , _l gas and liquid viscosity (kg m^–1 s^–1) - _g , _i gas and liquid density (kg m^–3) - surface tension (kg s^–2) An abridged version of this paper was presented at the 6th ICLASS (Int. Conf. on Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems), Rouen, France, 18–22 July 1994     

An approach to the estimation of polymer melt elasticity

An effective method has been proposed to estimate the primary normalstress difference versus shear rate curves at temperatures relevant to the processing conditions only from the knowledge of the melt flow index, the molecular-weight distribution and the glass transition temperature of the polymer. The method involves the use of a unified curve obtained by coalescing the elastic response curves of various grades in terms of the modified normal-stress coefficient ₁ (MFI)² and a modified shear rate . Unified curves have been reported for low density polyethylene, high density polyethylene, polypropylene and nylon.Nomenclature C ₁ constant in eq. (4) - J _e steady state compliance (cm²/dyne) - proportionality constant in eq. (6) - L load (kg) - L ₁ load (kg) at ASTM test conditions - L ₂ load (kg) at required conditions - MFI melt flow index (gm/10 min) - number average molecular weight - weight average molecular weight - z-average molecular weight - (z+1)-average molecular weight - n slope of the shear stress vs. shear curve on a log-log scale - N ₁ primary normal-stress difference (dynes/cm²) - Q molecular weight distribution expressed as - T ₁is> temperature (K) at condition 1 - T ₂is> temperature (K) at condition 2 - T _g glass transition temperature (K) - T _s standard reference temperature equal toT _g + 50 K - shear rate (s^–1) - ₀ zero-shear viscosity (poise) - apparent viscosity (poise) - density (g/cm³) - ₁₂ shear stress (dynes/cm²) - ₁₁– ₂₂ primary normal-stress difference (dynes/cm²) - _1,0 zero shear rate primary normal-stress coefficient (dynes/cm² · sec²) - ₁ primary normal-stress coefficient (dynes/cm² · sec²) - ₂ secondary normal-stress coefficient (dynes/cm² · sec²) NCL-Communication No. 3106     

Injection moulding of plastics

Summary In continuation of a previous investigation a simple analytical expression is derived in closed form for the thickness distribution of the freeze-off layer which is vitrified at the (flat) wall of an oblong rectangular cavity. As has been pointed out previously, this layer is marked for amorphous polymers by the molecular orientation (birefringence pattern) in the moulded sample. One can show that a more detailed study with the aid of the coupled equations of energy and of motion will not furnish essential improvements. Problems of polymer physics like glass transition or crystallization kinetics at extreme rates of cooling and shearing must be solved first.

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Zusammenfassung In Fortsetzung einer früheren Untersuchung wurde ein einfacher analytischer Ausdruck in geschlossener Form für die Dickenverteilung der eingefrorenen Schicht abgeleitet, die an der (flachen) Wand eines langgestreckten rechteckigen Formnestes während des Einspritzvorgangs glasig erstarrt. Wie früher auseinandergesetzt wurde, wird diese Schicht bei amorphen Polymeren durch die Molekülorientierung (Doppelbrechungsmuster) im gespritzten Formteil markiert. Man kann zeigen, daß eine eingehendere Studie mit Hilfe der gekoppelten Energie- und Impulsgleichungen keine essentiellen Verbesserungen bringt. Probleme der Polymerphysik, wie Glasübergang oder Kristallisationskinetik bei extremen Abkühlungs- und Schergeschwindigkeiten, müssen erst gelöst werden.

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List of Symbols a heat diffusivity of polymer melt (averaged overT) [m²s^–1] - B breadth of mould cavity [m] - Br Brinkman number ( ) - c heat capacity of polymer melt (averaged overT) [J kg^–1 K^–1] - F ₀ Fourier number (at _i/4H ²) - h heat transfer coefficient by melt flow [J K^–1 s^–1 m^–2] - h heat transfer coefficient by layer growth [J K^–1 s^–1 m^–2] - H half height of mould cavity [m] - L length of mould cavity [m] - n exponent in eq. [18] (= 0.417) - Nu Nußelt number (2Hh/) - P pressure gradientdP/dz in mould [N m^–3] - t time [s] - t _i injection time [s] - T _g glass transition temperature of polymer [K] - T _i injection temperature of polymer melt [K] - T _l stagnation temperature [K] - T _m mould wall temperature [K] - speed of flow front during mould filling [m s^–1] - x coordinate perpendicular to mould wall [m] - z coordinate in the injection direction [m] - thickness of stagnant layer (atT _l) [m] - ₀ optically detectable freeze-off thickness [m] - ⁺ apparent layer thickness (atT _i) [m] - dimensionless freeze-off thickness (= ₀/2H) - dimensionless distance from entrance (=z/L) - _m dimensionless coordinate of layer maximum - _g dimensionless temperature (= (T _i –T _l)/(T _g –T _m)) - _i dimensionless temperature (= (T _i –T _l)/(T _i –T _m)) - _l dimensionless temperature (= (T _i –T _l)/(T _l –T _m)) - _i viscosity of polymer atT _i [N s m^–3] - _l viscosity of polymer atT _l [N s m^–3] - heat conductivity of polymer melt (averaged) [J K^–1 s^–1 m^–1] - density of polymer melt (averaged) [kg m^–3] - dimensionless time (eq. [11]) - ⁺ dimensionless parameter (eqs. [19a] and [19b]) - dimensionless layer thickness (eq. [12]) - ⁺ dimensionless parameter (eq. [20a]) - dimensionless parameter (eqs. [11a] and [11b]) Formerly at Delft University of Technology, Delft (The Netherlands).Paper presented at the Conference on Chemical Engineering Rheology, Annual Meeting of the Deutsche Rheologische Gesellschaft in Aachen, March 5–7, 1979.With 3 figures and 1 table     

Effect of solids concentration in dense suspensions of silica-iron(III) oxide and water

The rheological properties of dense suspensions, of silica, iron (III) oxide and water, were studied over a range of solids concentrations using a viscometer, which was modified so as to prevent settling of the solid components. Over the conditions studied, the material behaved according to power—law flow relationships. As the concentrations of silica and iron(III) oxide were increased, an entropy term in the flow equation was identified which had a silica dependent and an iron (III) oxide dependent component. This was attributed to a tendency to order into some form of structural regularity. A, A, B, C pre-exponential functions (K Pa^–n s^–1) - C _ox volume fraction iron (III) oxide - Q activation energy (kJ mol^–1) - R gas constant (kJ mol^–1 K^–1) - R _v silica/water volume ratio - T temperature (K) - n power-law index - H enthalpy (kJ mol^–1) - S entropy change (kJ mol^–1 K^–1) - shear strain rate (s^–1) - shear stress (Pa)     

On the laminar forced convection with axial conduction in a circular tube with exponential wall heat flux

The values of the fully developed Nusselt number for laminar forced convection in a circular tube with axial conduction in the fluid and exponential wall heat flux are determined analytically. Moreover, the distinction between the concepts of bulk temperature and mixing-cup temperature, at low values of the Peclet number, is pointed out. Finally it is shown that, if the Nusselt number is defined with respect to the mixing-cup temperature, then the boundary condition of exponentially varying wall heat flux includes as particular cases the boundary conditions of uniform wall temperature and of convection with an external fluid.

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Über laminare Zwangskonvektion mit Längswärmeleitung in einem Kreisrohr mit exponentiell veränderlichem Wandwärmefluß

Zusammenfassung Es werden die Endwerte der Nusselt-Zahlen für vollausgebildete laminare Zwangskonvektion in einem Kreisrohr mit Längswärmeleitung und exponentiell veränderlichem Wandwärmefluß analytisch ermittelt. Besondere Betonung liegt auf dem Unterschied zwischen den Konzepten für die Mittel- und die Mischtemperatur bei niedrigen Peclet-Zahlen. Schließlich wird gezeigt, daß bei Definition der Nusselt-Zahl bezüglich der Mischtemperatur die Randbedingung exponentiell veränderlichen Randwärmeflusses die Spezialfälle konstanter Wandtemperatur und konvektiven Wärmeaustausches mit einem umgebenden Fluid einschließt.

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Nomenclature A _n dimensionless coefficients employed in the Appendix - Bi Biot numberBi=h _e r ₀/ - c _n dimensionless coefficients defined in Eq. (17) - c _p specific heat at constant pressure of the fluid within the tube, [J kg^–1 K^–1] - f solution of Eq. (15) - h ₁,h ₂ specific enthalpies employed in Eqs. (2) and (4), [J kg^–1] - h _e convection coefficient with a fluid outside the tube, [W m^–2 K^–1] - rate of mass flow, [kg s^–1] - Nu bulk Nusselt number,2r ₀ q _w /[(T _w –T _b )] - Nu _H fully developed value of the bulk Nusselt number for the boundary condition of uniform wall heat flux - Nu _T fully developed value of the bulk Nusselt number for the boundary condition of uniform wall temperature - Nu ^* mixing Nusselt number,2r ₀ q _w /[(T _w –T _m )] - Nu _C ^* fully developed value of the mixing Nusselt number for the boundary condition of convection with an external fluid - Nu _H ^* fully developed value of the mixing Nusselt number for the boundary condition of uniform wall heat flux - Nu _T ^* fully developed value of the mixing Nusselt number for the boundary condition of uniform wall temperature - Pe Peclet number, 2r ₀/ - q ₀ wall heat flux atx=0, [W m^–2] - q _w wall heat flux, [W m^–2] - r radial coordinate, [m] - r ₀ radius of the tube, [m] - s dimensionless radius,s=r/r ₀ - T temperature, [K] - T ₀ temperature constant employed in Eq. (14), [K] - T reference temperature of the fluid external to the tube, [K] - T _b bulk temperature, [K] - T _m mixing or mixing-cup temperature, [K] - T _w wall temperature, [K] - u velocity component in the axial direction, [m s^–1] - mean value ofu, [m s^–1] - x axial coordinate, [m] Greek symbols thermal diffusivity of the fluid within the tube, [m² s^–1] - exponent in wall heat flux variation, [m^–1] - dimensionless parameter - dimensionless temperature =(T _w –T)/(T _w –T _b ) - ^* dimensionless temperature ^*=(T _w –T)/(T _w –T _m ) - thermal conductivity of the fluid within the tube, [W m^–1 K^–1] - density of the fluid within the tube, [kg m^–3]     

Non-isothermal flow of polymer melts in a curved tube

The results of a numerical study (using finite differences) of heat transfer in polymer melt flow is presented. The rheological behaviour of the melt is described by a temperature-dependent power-law model. The curved tube wall is assumed to be at constant temperature. Convective and viscous dissipation terms are included in the energy equation. Velocity, temperature and viscosity profiles, Nusselt numbers, bulk temperatures, etc. are presented for a variety of flow conditions. Br — Brinkman number - c specific heat, J/kg K - De — Dean number - E dimensionless apparent viscosity, eq. (14d) - G dimensionless shear rate, eq. (19) - k parameter of the power-law model, °C^–1, eq. (7) - mass flow rate, kg/s - m ₀ parameter of the power-law model, Pa · s ⁿ , eq. (7) - n parameter of the power-law model, eq. (7) - Nu 2r _p/ — Nusselt number, eqs. (28,31) - p pressure, Pa - Pe — Péclet number - P —(p/)/r _c — pressure gradient, Pa/m - dissipated energy, W, eq. (29) - total energy, W, eq. (30) - r radial coordinate, m - r _c radius of tube-curvature, m, fig. 1 - r _p radius of tube, m, fig. 1 - r _t variable, m, eq. (6) - R dimensionless radial coordinate, eq. (14a) - R _c dimensionlessr _c, eq. (14a) - R _t dimensionlessr _t, eq. (14a) - t temperature, °C - bulk temperature, °C, eq. (27) - t ₀ inlet temperature of the melt, °C - t _w tube wall temperature, °C - T dimensionless temperature, eq. (14c) - T _w dimensionless tube wall temperature - T dimensionless bulk temperature - u ₁ variable, s^–1, eq. (4) - u ₂ variable, s^–1, eq. (5) - U ₁ dimensionlessu ₁, eq. (18) - U ₂ dimensionlessu ₂, eq. (18) - v velocity in-direction, m/s - average velocity of the melt, m/s - V dimensionlessv, eq. (14b) - dimensionless , eq. (15) - z r _c — centre length of the tube, m - Z dimensionlessz, eq. (14e) - heat transfer coefficient, W/m² K - shear rate, s^–1, eq. (8) - — shear rate, s^–1 - apparent viscosity, Pa · s, eq. (7) - ₀ — apparent viscosity, Pa · s - angular coordinate, rad, fig. 1 - thermal conductivity, W/m K - melt density, kg/m³ - axial coordinate, rad, fig. 1 - rate of strain tensor, s^–1, eq. (8) - (—p) pressure drop, Pa     

Heat transfer between gas-liquid spray stream flowing perpendicularly to the row of the cylinders

Experimental investigation and analysis of heat transfer process between a gas-liquid spray flow and the row of smooth cylinders placed in the surface perpendicular to the flow has been performed. Among others, there was taken into account in the analysis the phenomenon of droplets bouncing and omitting the cylinder as well as the phenomenon of the evaporation process from the liquid film surface.In the experiments test cylinders were used, which were placed between two other cylinders standing in the row.From the experiments and the analysis the conclusion can be drawn that the heat transfer coefficients values for a row of the cylinders are higher than for a single cylinder placed in the gasliquid spray flow.

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Wärmeübergang an eine senkrecht anf eine Zylinderreihe auftreffende Gas-Flüssigkeits-Sprüh-Strömung

Zusammenfassung Es wurden Messungen und theoretische Analysen des Wärmeübergangs zwischen einer Gas-FlüssigkeitsSprüh-Strömung und den glatten Oberflächen einer Zylinderreihe durchgeführt, die senkrecht zum Sprühstrahl angeordnet waren. Dabei wurde in der Analyse unter anderem das Phänomen betrachtet, daß die Tropfen die Zylinderwand treffen und verfehlen können und daß sich ein Verdampfungsprozeß aus dem flüssigen Film an der Zylinderoberfläche einstellt.Gemessen wurde an einem zwischen zwei Randzylindern befindlichen Zylinder.Die Experimente und die Analyse gestatten die Schlußfolgerung, daß der Wärmeübergangskoeffizient für eine Zylinderreihe höher ist als für einen einzelnen Zylinder in der Sprühströmung.

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Nomenclature a distance between axes of cylinders, m - c _l specific heat capacity of liquid, J/kg K - c _g specific heat capacity of gas, J/kg K - D cylinder diameter, m - g _l mass velocity of liquid, kg/m²s - ¯k average volume ratio of liquid entering film to amount of liquid directed at the cylinder in gas-liquid spray flow, dimensionless - k() local volume ratio of liquid entering film to amount of liquid directed at the cylinder in gas-liquid spray flow, dimensionless - L specific latent heat of vaporisation, J/kg - m mass fraction of water in gas-liquid spray flow, dimensionless - M constant in Eq. (9) - p pressure, Pa - p _g statical pressure of gas, Pa - p _w pressure of gas on the cylinder surface, Pa - p external pressure on the liquid film surface, Pa - r cylindrical coordinate, m - R radius of cylinder, m - T temperature, K, °C - T _l, t_l liquid temperature in the gas-liquid spray, K, °C - T _w,t_w temperature of cylinder surface, K, °C - T temperature of gas-liquid film interface, K - U liquid film velocity, m/s - w gas velocity on cylinder surface, m/s - w _g gas velocity in free stream, m/s - W _l liquid vapour mass ratio in free stream, dimensionless - W liquid vapour mass ratio at the edge of a liquid film, dimensionless - x coordinate, m - y coordinate, m - z complex variable, dimensionless - average heat transfer coefficient, W/m²K - local heat transfer coefficient, W/m² K - average heat transfer coefficient between cylinder surface and gas, W/m² K - _g, local heat transfer coefficient between cylinder surface and gas, W/m² K - mass transfer coefficient, kg/m²s - liquid film thickness, m - _lg dynamic diffusion coefficient of liquid vapour in gas, kg/m s - pressure distribution function on a cylinder surface - function defined by Eq. (3) - _l liquid dynamic viscosity, kg/m s - _g gas dynamic viscosity, kg/m s - cylindrical coordinate, rad, deg - _l thermal conductivity of liquid, W/m K - _g thermal conductivity of gas, W/m K - mass transfer driving force, dimensionless - _l density of liquid, kg/m³ - _g density of gas, kg/m³ - _w shear stress on the cylinder surface, N/m² - _w shear stress exerted by gas at the liquid film surface, N/m² - air relative humidity, dimensionless - T -T _w - _w =T _wT_l Dimensionless parameters I= enhancement factor of heat transfer - m ^*=M _l/M_g molar mass of liquid to the molar mass of gas ratio - Nu _g= D/ _g gas Nusselt number - Pr _g=c _{g g}/_g gas Prandtl number - Pr _l=c_lll liquid Prandtl number - ¯r=(r–R)/ dimensionless coordinate - Re _g=w_gD _g/_g gas Reynolds number - Re _g,max=w_g,max D _g/_g gas Reynolds number calculated for the maximal gas velocity between the cylinders - Sc=m ^* _g/_l–g Schmidt number =/R dimensionless film thickness     

Nonisothermal non-Newtonian chemical reactions in a tubular reactor under conditions of variable viscosity

The nonisothermal non-Newtonian chemical reactions in a tubular reactor are investigated. The non-Newtonian fluid is assumed to be characterized by the Ostwald-de Waele power-law model, which represents the majority of laminar flow of food products and many polymer melts and solutions. The temperature effect on the viscosity is considered and is found to be very significant. The effects of other important dimensionless parameters on the reactor performances are examined.Nomenclature c mass fraction of reactant - c ₀ inlect mass fraction of reactant - C _p heat capacity, J/kg K - C dimensionless concentration of reactant, c/c ₀ - C _b dimensionless bulk concentration of reactant - D molecular diffusivity, m²/s - E activation energy, J/kg - H heat of reaction, J/m³ - k ₁ frequency factor, s^–1 - k _t heat conductivity, J/m K kg - K fluid consistency, kg s ^n–1/m - K ₁ dimensionless frequency factor, k ₁ r ₀ ² c ^m–1 exp(–₁)/D - K ₀ constant in Eq. (6) - m order of chemical reaction - n rheological parameter - p pressure, kg/m s² - r radial coordinate, m - r ₀ radius of reactor, m - R dimensionless radial coordinate, r/r ₀ - R _g gas constant, J/kg K - T temperature, K - T ₀ inlet temperature, K - u velocity, m/s - u _b bulk velocity, m/s - U dimensionless velocity, u/u _b - x axial coordinate, m - X dimensionless axial coordinate, xD/r ₀ ² u _b Greek symbols dimensionless parameter, - dimensionless parameter, ₀T₀ - ₁ dimensionless activation energy, E/R _g T ₀ - ₂ dimensionless heat generation, - dimensionless temperature, (T–T ₀)/T ₀ - _b dimensionless bulk temperature - liquid density, kg/m³     

Extensional flow of polymer solutions through porous media

The flow behaviour of various polymer solutions of non-hydrolyzed polyacrylamide, hydrolyzed polyacrylamide, polyox and Xanthan was investigated in a plexiglass column having a succession of enlargements and constrictions, and compared with the flow behaviour and mechanical degradation of a solution of non-hydrolyzed polyacrylamide in a packed column of non-consolidated sand. The flow behaviour of this solution was found to be very similar in both the sand pack and plexiglass pore.Apart from the Xanthan solution, all other polymer solutions showed a viscoelastic behaviour in the plexiglass pore. The onset of viscoelastic behaviour, which has previously been defined using the shear rate ( ), stretch rate ( _s ) and Ellis number (E ₁), could be more precisely evaluated using a modified stretch rate (S _G). The pressure losses across the plexiglass pore for different polymer solutions of the same type were found to follow a unique curve provided the suggested group (S _G) was used, a situation which was not achieved with the other rheological parameters.The multipass mechanical degradation of the non-hydrolized polyacrylamide was tested through the sand pack against the suggested group (S _G) and Maerker's group (M _a). It was found that the loss of the solution viscoelasticity due to multipass mechanical degradation was better represented usingS _G thanM _a. A cross-sectional area (cm²) - C ^* critical concentration of polymer (ppm) - d plexiglass pore enlargement diameter - D average sand grain diameter (cm) - e equivalent width for the plexiglass pore - E ₁ Ellis number (a Deborah number) - F _R resistance factor - F _Ri resistance factor at the first pass - h height of the flow path of the plexiglass pore - K power-law constant - K _h,K _w effective permeability to hydrocarbon and water, respectively (10^–8 cm²) - M _a Maerker's group for a given porosity (s^–1) - M _ai value ofM _a at the first pass - N _D Deborah number - n power-law index - Q flow rate (cm³/s) - R capillary radius (cm) - R _g radius of gyration - S _G suggested group of rheological parameters representing a modified maximum stretch rate (s^–1) - S _Gi value ofS _G at the first pass - T _R,t characteristic time for the fluid (s) - t _s residence time (s) - V ₀ superficial velocity (cm/s) - V mean velocity of flow through a porous medium (cm/s) - average axial velocity in the enlargement section of the plexiglass pore (cm/s) - V ₁,V ₂ maximum velocity at a plexiglass enlargement neck and centre - [] intrincis viscosity - viscosity (mPa s) - _r relative viscosity (ratio of the viscosity of the polymer solution to that of the solvent) - shear rate (s^–1) - _s stretch rate (s^–1) - characteristic time for the polymer solution (s)