剪切增稠液的力学性能与机理

剪切增稠液（shear thickening fluids,STFs）是一种将纳米或者微米尺度的颗粒分散到极性介质中,形成的浓缩颗粒悬浮液。由于在外力的作用下,其力学性能会表现出快速、显著、可逆的变化,并且具有优异的能量吸收能力,因此在减振吸振、个体防护、抗冲击等领域有着重要的应用前景。本文首先介绍了高性能STF的研制,分析了STF在不同外加载荷下的力学行为;然后从实验和理论等方面讨论了STF机理的研究现状;最后总结了关于STF的实际应用并对这类材料的发展进行展望。     

Investigation of impact resistance of multilayered woven composite barrier impregnated with the shear thickening fluid

Dynamic properties of the Shear Thickening Fluid (STF) are studied. Two series of tests by the Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar method were carried out to determine the dynamic bulk and shear properties of STF. The hypothesis about the possibility to describe STF behavior by a Newtonian fluid model in the characteristic range of strain rates is confirmed. A simplified mathematical model of the STF is then formulated for the use in computer simulation of ballistic impact tests of multilayered composite protective shells. The effectiveness of the STF impregnation for improvement of ballistic impact characteristics of Kevlar woven fabrics is confirmed. It is concluded that the role of the contact conditions between STF and Kevlar basis in the process of increasing the energy absorption capacity of Kevlar-STF barrier is significant, noting that the mechanism of contact interaction between STF and Kevlar basis can be described by viscous friction law, i.e., the STF behaves almost as a rigid body during the interactions with the solids, while it normally behaves as a fluid. It is also established that the STF impregnation of protective shells with titanium framework not only increases the absorption capacity of the whole package but also reduces the deflection of the metal base.     

The impact of non-DLVO forces on the onset of shear thickening of concentrated electrically stabilized suspensions

This paper exposes an extension of an activation model previously published by the authors. When particles arranged along the compression axis of a sheared suspension, they may overcome the electrostatic repulsion and form force chains associated with shear thickening. A percolation-based consideration allows an estimation of the impact of the force chains on a flowing suspension. It suggests that similar to mode coupling models, the suspension becomes unstable before the critical stress evaluated from the activation model is reached. The percolated force chains lead to discontinuous shear thickening. The model predictions are compared with results from two experimental studies on aqueous suspensions of inorganic oxides; in one of them, hydration repulsion and in the other hydrophobic attraction can be expected. It is shown that the incorporation of non-Derjaguin–Landau–Verwey–Overbeek forces greatly improve predictions of the shear thickening instability.     

Dynamic properties of shear thickening colloidal suspensions

The transient shear rheology (i.e., frequency and strain dependence) is compared to the steady rheology for a model colloidal dispersion through the shear thickening transition. Reversible shear thickening is observed and the transition stress compares well to theoretical predictions. Steady and transient shear thickening are observed to occur at the same value of the average stress. The critical strain for shear thickening is found to depend inversely on the frequency at fixed applied stress for low frequencies (high strains), but is limited to an apparent minimum critical strain at higher frequencies. This minimum critical strain is shown to be an artifact of slip. Lissajous plots illustrate the transition in material properties through the shear thickening transition, and the energy dissipated by a shear thickening suspension is analyzed as a function of strain amplitude.     

Reducing shear thickening of cement-based suspensions

Rheological measurements were made on concrete and mortars to characterize the shear thickening behavior of certain concrete mix designs. Shear thickening reduction levers were found by selecting and designing admixtures. Since the shear-thickening phenomena occur at the scale of the finest particles, industrial limestone fillers were studied that behave like cementitious materials. Theories based on previous academic works were relevant. The shear stress-dependent effects of shear thickening and size scaling were very helpful to distinguish between surface interactions, such as lubrication and volumetric contributions and also including the packing effects. The suspension viscosity curves vary accordingly to the Newtonian viscosity of the solvent medium. In both the shear thinning and shear thickening regimes, viscosity is controlled by adjusting the amount of two specific admixtures. The reduction of friction between polymer-coated materials appears to be a key phenomenon to delay onset shear thickening in industrial processes.     

Flow-induced concentration fluctuations in polymer solutions: Structure/property relationships

Mechanical and optical rheometric measurements are reported on solutions of polystyrene dissolved in dioctyl phthalate, a solution that can undergo an apparent phase separation upon the application of shear. Solutions prepared using three molecular weights ranging from one to four million were studied. Time-temperature superposition was observed to apply for these solutions up to and including the onset of an apparent shear thickening of the steady shear and first normal stresses. Optical measurements employing turbidity and scattering dichroism determined that concentration fluctuations were enhanced by flow and grew parallel to the vorticity axis below the critical velocity gradient for the onset of the apparent shear thickening effect. Prior to the onset of thickening, the fluctuations were observed to rearrange and orient parallel to the flow direction. Second normal stress difference measurements indicate these solutions have a negative ratio of the second to the first normal stress differences. It is interesting to point out that the ratio tends to zero in the vicinity of the shear rate range at which shear thickening occurs.     

Microstructure of shear-thickening concentrated suspensions determined by flow-USANS

Reversible shear thickening in colloidal suspensions is a consequence of the formation of hydroclusters due to the dominance of short-ranged lubrication hydrodynamic interactions at relatively high shear rates. Here, we develop and demonstrate a new method of flow-ultra small angle neutron scattering to probe the colloidal microstructure under steady flow conditions on length scales suitable to characterize the formation of hydroclusters. Results are presented for a model near hard-sphere colloidal suspension of 260 nm radius (10% polydisperse) sterically stabilized silica particles in poly(ethylene glycol) at shear rates in the shear thinning and shear thickening regime for dilute, moderately concentrated, and concentrated (ordered) suspensions. Hydrocluster formation is observed as correlated, broadly distributed density fluctuations in the suspension with a characteristic length scale of a few particle diameters. An order–disorder transition is observed to be coincident with shear thickening for the most concentrated sample, but the shear-thickened state shows hydrocluster formation. These structural observations are correlated to the behavior of the shear viscosity and discussed within the framework of theory, simulation, and prior experiments.     

Shear thickening in electrically-stabilized colloidal suspensions

A theory is presented for the onset of shear thickening in colloidal suspensions of particles, stabilized by an electrostatic repulsion. Based on an activation model, a critical shear stress can be derived for the onset of shear thickening in dense suspensions for a constant potential and a constant charge approach of the spheres. Unlike previous models, the total interaction potential is taken into account (sum of attraction and repulsion). The critical shear stress is related to the maximum of the total interaction potential scaled by the free volume per particle. A comparison with experimental investigations shows the applicability of the theory.     

动脉分岔血管内膜增生过程的数值模拟

内膜增生从发生到阻塞血管是一个复杂的变化过程,在这个过程中,内膜的增生、血管腔体形状的改变和血流动力学之间是相互影响的。为了研究这些变化,本文提出一种单元填充方法数值模拟了三维颈动脉分岔血管在低切应力作用下血管内膜增生的过程。该方法既可以克服节点移动方法所不可避免的内膜增生的不连续性,也可以避免网格重划分的困难。结果发现,如果单纯以切应力阈值作为内膜增生的判据,低切应力的作用将无法导致血管完全阻塞,但内膜增生和血流动力学之间的相互影响是可以通过数值方法进行模拟的。在本数值模拟中,内膜增生的过程分为"增厚"(先)和"扩展"(后)两个阶段,最大狭窄率为34.4%,发生在距血管分岔5mm处动脉窦的外侧壁面。其发生位置和形状与临床观察吻合。     

On the shear-thickening behaviour of dilute solutions of chain macromolecules

The shear thickening observed in laminar Poiseuille flow for dilute solutions of polystyrene of high molecular weight in decalin is studied as a function of concentration, molecular weight and shear rate. The experiments show the existence of four invariants, i.e. two critical Deborah numbers, a critical viscosity ratio, and a critical hydrodynamic dissipated energy, in terms of which a mechanism of this shear thickening can be proposed. It involves a permanent deformation of the macro molecules above a critical shear.     

Shear thickening phenomena in poly(vinyl)alcohol-borate complexes

Bizarre rheological properties of shear thickening complexes of poly(vinyl) alcohol and sodium borate have been investigated in Couette flow experiments. At least three distinct types of shear rate induced rheological transitions have been discovered. The type of shear thickening which results when a threshold shear rate is exceeded is reversible, and the threshold shear rate depends upon the composition. Typical rheological behaviorbelow andabove the threshold shear rate are as follows: Type I: shear thinning-shear thickening, Type II: shear thickening-erratic, Type III: Newtonian (low viscosity)-Newtonian (high viscosity). Normal stress effects and time dependent shear thickening have also been observed. The results are interpreted in the light of mechanisms advanced to explain gradient and time dependent shear thickening phenomena. Included is a concise literature survey of shear thickening phenomena.

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Zusammenfassung Es werden einige rheologische Eigenschaften von Scherverdickungskomplexen aus Poly(vinyl)alkohol und Natriumborat beschrieben. Die Art der Scherverdickung, die sich ergibt, wenn eine Schwellenschergeschwindigkeit beim Couette-Fließen überschritten wird, ist reversibel. Es lassen sich mindestens drei ausgeprägte Typen der durch die Schergeschwindigkeit induzierten Übergänge des rheologischen Verhaltens identifizieren.Die Schwellenschergeschwindigkeiten variieren stark, und zwar je nach der Zusammensetzung. Die Viskositätsgrößen unterhalb und oberhalb der Schwellenschergeschwindigkeit variieren erheblich, z. B. von 0,2 Poise bis 1 Poise oder von 3 Poise bis 80 Poise. Der Übergang im Fließverhalten wird von Normalspannungseffekten begleitet, die für fließende viskoelastische Flüssigkeiten typisch sind.Es kommen bizarre rheologische Effekte vor, wie beispielsweise Scherverdünnung/Scherverdickung, Scherverdickung/Seherverdünnung, Newtonsches Verhalten/Scherverdickung/Newtonsches Verhalten.Bei einigen Stoffen wird auch zeitabhängiges Scherverdickungsverhalten beobachtet.

     

E-FiRST: Electric field responsive shear thickening fluids

A novel electrorheological (ER) effect is presented where the application of an electric field, orthogonal to the vorticity-flow plane, increases the critical hydrodynamic stress required to shear thicken concentrated, colloidal dispersions (the E-FiRST effect). The shear thickening behavior of a Brownian charge stabilized dispersion (226 nm silica in 4-methylcyclohexanol at 53, 50. and 41 vol.%) is studied in the presence of an electric field as a function of the field strength and coupling parameter ( ß) where the latter is a function of a.c. field frequency due to diffusion limitations on the polarization of the particles' double layer. A mechanism is proposed whereby the applied electric field suppresses the formation of the self-organized hydrocluster microstructure responsible for shear thickening, thus delaying the onset of shear thickening to higher applied shear stresses. A Mason-number type scaling law is found to scale the effect, which supports the proposed mechanism.     

Shear thickening and shear-induced agglomeration of chemical mechanical polishing slurries using electrolytes

Chemical mechanical polishing is a fundamental technology used in the semiconductor manufacturing industry to polish and planarize a wide range of materials for the fabrication of microelectronic devices. During the high-shear (～1,000,000 s^?1) polishing process, it is hypothesized that individual slurry particles are driven together to form large agglomerates (≥0.5 µm). These agglomerates are believed to trigger a shear-induced thickening effect and cause defects during polishing. We examined how the addition of various monovalent salts (CsCl, KCl, LiCl, and NaCl) and electrostatic stabilizing bases (KOH, NaOH, or CsOH) influenced the slurry’s thickening behavior. Overall, as the added salt concentration was increased from 0.02 to 0.15 M, the shear rate at which the slurry thickened (i.e., the critical shear rate) decreased. Slurries with added CsCl, NaCl, and LiCl thickened at comparable shear rates (～20,000–70,000 s^?1) and, in general, followed ion hydration theory (poorly hydrated ions caused the slurry to thicken at lower shear rates). However, slurries with added KCl portrayed thickening behavior at higher critical shear rates (～35,000–100,000 s^?1) than other chloride salts. Also, slurries stabilized with CsOH thickened at higher shear rates (～90,000–140,000 s^?1), regardless of the added salt cation or concentration, than the slurries with KOH or NaOH. The NaOH-stabilized slurries displayed thickening at the lowest shear rates (～20,000 s^?1). The thickening dependence on slurry base cation indicates the existence of additional close-range structure forces that are not predicted by the Derjaguin–Landau–Verwey–Overbeek colloidal stability theory.     

New insights on fumed colloidal rheology—shear thickening and vorticity-aligned structures in flocculating dispersions

We investigate the rheology of dilute dispersions of fumed colloidal particles with attractive interactions in hydrocarbon liquids. Surprisingly, these systems display shear thickening due to the breakdown of densified flocs and a concomitant increase in the effective volume fraction of the fractal particles in the fluid. We show that this shear thickening is controlled by a critical stress and accompanied by a positive increase in the first normal stress difference, N ₁, at the shear thickening transition. This is in contrast to the well-known hydrocluster mechanism of shear thickening in concentrated hard-sphere and repulsive systems. Gel elasticity depends strongly on the stress applied to suspensions in preshear, scaling roughly as \(G'\sim\sigma_{\text{preshear}}^{2}\). We propose a simple model to account for these results in terms of the cluster number density determined by the preshear stress. At low shear rates, vorticity-aligned aggregates are present at \(\dot\gamma\approx 10^0 {\rm{s}}^{-1}\) . In this regime, the system displays a small but noticeable increase in viscosity on increasing shear rate. We investigate the effect of tool roughness and find that wall slip is not responsible for the observed phenomena. Instead, the increase in the apparent viscosity results from increased flow resistance due to the presence of gap-spanning log-like flocs in rolling flow.     

剪切增稠液体液舱侵彻实验

为研究剪切增稠液体(shear-thickening fluid, STF)液舱对弹体的防护性能,制备特定规格剪切增稠液体,并开展弹体侵彻剪切增稠液舱实验研究。实验中采用高速相机记录液舱侵彻过程中空泡的演化情况,并测试得到了弹体的剩余弹速以及前后靶板变形数据。实验结果显示,剪切增稠液体可有效抑制液舱侵彻过程中空泡的增长,从而降低液舱结构的损伤程度。结合空泡扩展理论模型,并考虑液体密度以及黏度变化对空泡增长的影响,验证了剪切增稠液体在高速冲击下产生的局部密度增大以及固化现象是抑制空泡扩展的主要原因。此外,剪切增稠液体对弹体速度的衰减作用明显,且相同初始弹速下,剪切增稠液体液舱前后靶板变形明显小于水体液舱。将剪切增稠液体填充于舰船液舱防护结构,可显著提高液舱结构的防护性能。     

Investigating the transient response of a shear thickening fluid using the split Hopkinson pressure bar technique

The split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) technique is implemented to evaluate the transient response of a colloidal suspension exhibiting shear thickening at strain rates and timescales never before explored in a laboratory instrument. These suspensions are shown to exhibit a discontinuous transition from fluid-like (shear thinning) to solid-like (shear thickening) behavior when evaluated using rotational rheometry. The effect of loading rate on this transition time is studied for a particle volume fraction of 0.54 using the SHPB technique. It is shown that the time required for transition to occur decreases logarithmically with loading rate. From these results, we conclude that transition is not triggered by a characteristic shear rate, but rather a critical shear strain is required. Results from SHPB experiments performed up to Peclet numbers of order 10⁷ are presented and discussed for 0.50, 0.52, and 0.54 particle volume fraction suspensions.     

Rheology of shear thickening suspensions and the effects of wall slip in torsional flow

The rheological characterisation of concentrated shear thickening materials suspensions is challenging, as complicated and occasionally discontinuous rheograms are produced. Wall slip is often apparent and when combined with a shear thickening fluid the usual means of calculating rim shear stress in torsional flow is inaccurate due to a more complex flow field. As the flow is no longer “controlled”, a rheological model must be assumed and the wall boundary conditions are redefined to allow for slip. A technique is described where, by examining the angular velocity response in very low torque experiments, it is possible to indirectly measure the wall slip velocity. The suspension is then tested at higher applied torques and different rheometer gaps. The results are integrated numerically to produce shear stress and shear rate values. This enables the measurement of true suspension bulk flow properties and wall slip velocity, with simple rheological models describing the observed complex rheograms.     

Dynamic fluid–structure interaction of an elastic capsule in a viscous shear flow at moderate Reynolds number

The unsteady behavior of a 2-D circular elastic capsule was investigated in three viscous shear flows. An immersed boundary method (IBM) has been used to solve the dynamic fluid-structure interaction of the capsule. Computations were carried out in finite parameter ranges where the Reynolds number is Re=1-40 and the capillary number is Ca=0.0005-0.05, which is the ratio of the external viscous shear stress to the resistant elastic tensions of the membrane. For the simple shear flow, the effect of inertia on the transient behavior of the capsule was studied. For the pulsatile shear flow, two values of the peak fluid strain, T_f=1 and 5, were considered for the quasi-steady capsule mechanics. The capsule shows a cyclic structural response that includes subharmonics as the Reynolds number is elevated to 10 and 40. The capsule dynamic response includes a phase lag, which is a function of the capillary number, the Reynolds number, and the peak fluid strain. Finally, the capsule flowing in the Couette flow shows lateral migration due to the transient lift force, which is higher for lower Ca and higher Re. When capsules with diverse elasticity are dispersed along the velocity gradient, the capsule with a hard membrane experienced greater lift than the one with a soft membrane.     

Shear-thickening behavior of polymethylmethacrylate particles suspensions in glycerine–water mixtures

The rheological behavior of polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) particles suspensions in glycerine–water mixtures has been investigated by means of steady and dynamic rheometry in this work. The shear rheology of these suspensions demonstrates a strong shear thickening behavior. The variations of shear viscosity with the volume fraction and ratios of glycerine to water are discussed. The effect of volume fraction can be qualitatively explained using a clustering mechanism, which attributes the phenomena to the formation of temporary, hydrodynamic clusters. The influence of interactions between glycerine–water mixtures and PMMA particles on shear thickening is investigated by varying the ratio of glycerine to water. In addition, the reversible and thixotropic properties of suspensions of PMMA dispersed in glycerine–water (3:1) mixtures are also investigated, and the results demonstrate the excellent reversible and thixotropic properties of PMMA particle suspensions.