Transversely isotropic material: nonlinear Cosserat versus classical approach

We consider a specific case of unidirectional reinforced material under applied tensile load. The reinforcement of the material is inclined with 45° to the direction of the tensile resultant. Different approaches are discussed: one experiment and three computational models. Two models use the classical Cauchy continuum theory whereas the third computational model is based on a Cosserat continuum. It is well known that test specimen with inclination between unidirectional reinforcement and tensile direction show, besides Poissons effect, additional deformation perpendicular to the load direction. The classical transversely isotropic continuum theory predicts this deformation as typical S-shape. In the Cosserat continuum the orientation of the inner structure is incorporated. Thus, structural parameters influence the deformation. With the proposed geometrically non-linear Cosserat model classical and non-classical behaviour can be modelled. In the non-classical case, the transverse deformation is not described by one S-shape but by multiple S-shaped modes. The additional rotational parameters in the Cosserat continuum are responsible for the non-classical behaviour which is due to non-symmetric strain.     

Finite elastic deformations of transversely isotropic circular cylindrical tubes

We consider the finite radially symmetric deformation of a circular cylindrical tube of a homogeneous transversely isotropic elastic material subject to axial stretch, radial deformation and torsion, supported by axial load, internal pressure and end moment. Two different directions of transverse isotropy are considered: the radial direction and an arbitrary direction in planes normal locally to the radial direction, the only directions for which the considered deformation is admissible in general. In the absence of body forces, formulas are obtained for the internal pressure, and the resultant axial load and torsional moment on the ends of the tube in respect of a general strain-energy function. For a specific material model of transversely isotropic elasticity, and material and geometrical parameters, numerical results are used to illustrate the dependence of the pressure, (reduced) axial load and moment on the radial stretch and a measure of the torsional deformation for a fixed value of the axial stretch.     

The effect of rotation and initial stress on the propagation of waves in a transversely isotropic elastic solid

In this paper the equations governing small amplitude motions in a rotating transversely isotropic initially stressed elastic solid are derived, both for compressible and incompressible linearly elastic materials. The equations are first applied to study the effects of initial stress and rotation on the speed of homogeneous plane waves propagating in a configuration with uniform initial stress. The general forms of the constitutive law, stresses and the elasticity tensor are derived within the finite deformation context and then summarized for the considered transversely isotropic material with initial stress in terms of invariants, following which they are specialized for linear elastic response and, for an incompressible material, to the case of plane strain, which involves considerable simplification. The equations for two-dimensional motions in the considered plane are then applied to the study of Rayleigh waves in a rotating half-space with the initial stress parallel to its boundary and the preferred direction of transverse isotropy either parallel to or normal to the boundary within the sagittal plane. The secular equation governing the wave speed is then derived for a general strain–energy function in the plane strain specialization, which involves only two material parameters. The results are illustrated graphically, first by showing how the wave speed depends on the material parameters and the rotation without specifying the constitutive law and, second, for a simple material model to highlight the effects of the rotation and initial stress on the surface wave speed.     

On the Comparison of Two Strategies to Formulate Orthotropic Hyperelasticity

The main goal of this work is to clarify the relation between two strategies to formulate constitutive equations for orthotropic materials at large strains. On the one hand, the classical approach is based on the incorporation of structural tensors into the free energy function via an enriched set of invariants. On the other hand, a fictitious isotropic configuration is introduced which renders an anisotropic, undeformed reference configuration via an appropriate linear tangent map. This formulation results in a reduced (with respect to the more general setting based on structural tensors) but nevertheless physically motivated set of invariants which are related to the invariants defined by structural tensors. As a main conceptual advantage standard isotropic constitutive equations can be applied and moreover, due to the reduced set of physically motivated invariants, the numerical treatment within a finite element setting becomes manageable.     

Hyperelastic dielectrics with saturated polarization2

Variational and invariance principles of modern continuum mechanics are used to establish the field equations, boundary conditions and constitutive relations of a non-linear hyperelastic dielectric with constant magnitude ‘saturated’ polarization. Euclidean invariance places restrictions on the Lagrangian and implies the basic conservation laws. The principles of objectivity and material symmetry restrict the form of the constitutive equations. Four equivalent forms of the free energy functional are listed and for one of these forms the minimal isotropy integrity basis. consisting of eleven invariants, is constructed. The positive definiteness of the energy functional is used to derive various inequalities for the material constants of isotropic dielectrics.     

Phenomenological invariants and their application to geometrically nonlinear formulation of triangular finite elements of shear deformable shells

A phenomenological definition of classical invariants of strain and stress tensors is considered. Based on this definition, the strain and stress invariants of a shell obeying the assumptions of the Reissner–Mindlin plate theory are determined using only three normal components of the corresponding tensors associated with three independent directions at the shell middle surface. The relations obtained for the invariants are employed to formulate a 15-dof curved triangular finite element for geometrically nonlinear analysis of thin and moderately thick elastic transversely isotropic shells undergoing arbitrarily large displacements and rotations. The question of improving nonlinear capabilities of the finite element without increasing the number of degrees of freedom is solved by assuming that the element sides are extensible planar nearly circular arcs. The shear locking is eliminated by approximating the curvature changes and transverse shear strains based on the solution of the Timoshenko beam equations. The performance of the finite element is studied using geometrically linear and nonlinear benchmark problems of plates and shells.     

Localized acoustic waves at twist boundaries in transversely isotropic media

Existence criteria and basic characteristics are analytically found for elastic waves localized at a twist boundary in transverse isotropic media. The boundary is formed by two identical semi-infinite bodies with non-collinear principal axes parallel to the interface. The analysis is based on the Stroh formalism specified to the case of transverse isotropy. The dispersion equation is presented in a general form and explicitly solved for small misorientations. The waves in the sector situated between the directions of transverse isotropy in the sub-media of the bicrystal are explicitly described.     

ANISOTROPIC STRENGTH CRITERION BASED ON T CRITERION AND THE TRANSFORMATION STRESS METHOD 1)

岩土材料通常呈现出成层水平分布特点, 即可将其视为横观各向同性材料, 横观各向同性对于岩土材料的变形以及强度值都会产生显著的影响. 基于已提出的t强度准则, t强度准则是基于各向同性单元体中存在有效滑移面来构建的, 并根据该空间有效滑移面上主剪应力与主法向应力的比值达到一定阈值为破坏条件. 在空间中存在有效滑移面与物理沉积面, 基于上述两个面在空间的位置关系, 用两面夹角作为表征横观各向同性对剪切强度影响程度的参量, 并假定当该夹角值越大, 则各向异性对强度贡献程度越大, 对应更大的应力比强度值, 反之, 则对应更小的应力比强度值. 基于上述思路并类比将其推广为正交三维各向异性准则, 基于三维各向异性材料的三维沉积面, 提出了三维特征沉积面的概念, 并基于空间滑移面与三维特征沉积面之间的夹角作为度量各向异性程度的变量, 提出了基于两面角作为参量考虑原生各向异性的应力比强度公式, 并利用该应力比强度公式来修正已提出的t强度准则, 最终建立了考虑各向异性影响的t准则公式. 在上述准则基础上, 考虑将各向异性应力空间转换为各向同性应力空间的思路, 在各向异性t准则基础上, 推导得到了基于各向异性强度t准则的变换应力公式, 利用变换应力公式可以将传统的以p, q为变量的各向同性本构模型转变为可考虑各向异性的三维本构模型. 通过对岩土材料的强度以及真三轴条件下的应力应变关系试验数据预测, 验证了所提的各向异性t准则及其变换应力公式的有效性及适用性.     

基于t准则的各向异性强度准则及变换应力法

岩土材料通常呈现出成层水平分布特点, 即可将其视为横观各向同性材料, 横观各向同性对于岩土材料的变形以及强度值都会产生显著的影响. 基于已提出的t强度准则, t强度准则是基于各向同性单元体中存在有效滑移面来构建的, 并根据该空间有效滑移面上主剪应力与主法向应力的比值达到一定阈值为破坏条件. 在空间中存在有效滑移面与物理沉积面, 基于上述两个面在空间的位置关系, 用两面夹角作为表征横观各向同性对剪切强度影响程度的参量, 并假定当该夹角值越大, 则各向异性对强度贡献程度越大, 对应更大的应力比强度值, 反之, 则对应更小的应力比强度值. 基于上述思路并类比将其推广为正交三维各向异性准则, 基于三维各向异性材料的三维沉积面, 提出了三维特征沉积面的概念, 并基于空间滑移面与三维特征沉积面之间的夹角作为度量各向异性程度的变量, 提出了基于两面角作为参量考虑原生各向异性的应力比强度公式, 并利用该应力比强度公式来修正已提出的t强度准则, 最终建立了考虑各向异性影响的t准则公式. 在上述准则基础上, 考虑将各向异性应力空间转换为各向同性应力空间的思路, 在各向异性t准则基础上, 推导得到了基于各向异性强度t准则的变换应力公式, 利用变换应力公式可以将传统的以p, q为变量的各向同性本构模型转变为可考虑各向异性的三维本构模型. 通过对岩土材料的强度以及真三轴条件下的应力应变关系试验数据预测, 验证了所提的各向异性t准则及其变换应力公式的有效性及适用性.      

平面Cosserat模型有限元分析的4和8节点单元与分片试验研究

经典连续体理论不包括物质内部尺度,当考虑应变软化问题时,有限元结果对网格具有很强的依赖性。与经典连续介质力学理论不同,Cosserat连续体模型在传统平动自由度的基础上添加了一独立的旋转自由度,在本构模型中引入了内尺度参数。本文研究了基于Cosserat理论的平面4和8节点等参元以及8（4）节点线、角位移混合插值等参单元,给出Cosserat单元分片试验的实施过程。最后将单元运用到小孔应力集中问题的分析当中,通过计算结果与理论解的比较,表明了4和8节点以及8（4）节点等参元的适用性,为问题的非线性分析打下基础。     

Material symmetry and the evolution of anisotropies in a simple material—I. Change of reference configuration

Noll's rule is used to determine the structure of a material symmetry group written with respect to one reference configuration when the representation of the symmetry with respect to another configuration is the traditional material symmetry group associated with isotropy, transverse isotropy or orthotropy, and for an arbitrary deformation gradient relating the two configurations. It is shown that the former symmetry group can contain an orthogonal subgroup. It is determined whether this subgroup is that for isotropic, transversely isotropic, orthotropic, monoclinic, or triclinic response, and the preferred directions of the symmetry are determined.     

A frame-indifferent model for a thermo-elastic material beyond the three-dimensional Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions

The covariance principle of differential geometry within a four-dimensional (4D) space-time ensures the validity of any equations and physical relations through any changes of frame of reference, due to the definition of the 4D space-time and the use of 4D tensors, operations and operators. This enables to separate covariance (i.e. frame-indifference) and material objectivity (i.e. material-indifference). We propose here a method to build a constitutive relation for thermo-elastic materials using such a 4D formalism. A 4D generalization of the classical variational approach is assumed leading to a model for a general thermo-elastic material. The isotropy of the relation can be ensured by the use of the invariants of variables, which offers new possibilities for the construction of constitutive relations. It is then possible to build a general frame-indifferent but not necessarily material-indifferent constitutive relation. It encompasses both the 3D Eulerian and Lagrangian thermo-elastic isotropic relations for finite transformations.     

A formulation of anisotropic continuum elastoplasticity at finite strains. Part I: Modelling

A constitutive model for anisotropic elastoplasticity at finite strains is developed together with its numerical implementation. An anisotropic elastic constitutive law is described in an invariant setting by use of structural tensors and the elastic strain measure C_e. The elastic strain tensor as well as the structural tensors are assumed to be invariant in relation to superimposed rigid body rotations. An anisotropic Hill-type yield criterion, described by a non-symmetric Eshelby-like stress tensor and further structural tensors, is developed, where use is made of representation theorems for functions with non-symmetric arguments. The model also considers non-linear isotropic hardening. Explicit results for the specific case of orthotropic anisotropy are given. The associative flow rule is employed and the features of the inelastic flow rule are discussed in full. It is shown that the classical definition of the plastic material spin is meaningless in conjunction with the present formulation. Instead, the study motivates an alternative definition, which is based on the demand that such a quantity must be dissipation-free, as the plastic material spin is in the case of isotropy. Equivalent spatial formulations are presented too. The full numerical treatment is considered in Part II.     

On constitutive modelling of porous neo-Hookean composites

In this paper a hyperelastic constitutive model is developed for neo-Hookean composites with aligned continuous cylindrical pores in the finite elasticity regime. Although the matrix is incompressible, the composite itself is compressible because of the existence of voids. For this compressible transversely isotropic material, the deformation gradient can be decomposed multiplicatively into three parts: an isochoric uniaxial deformation along the preferred direction of the material (which is identical to the direction of the cylindrical pores here); an equi-biaxial deformation on the transverse plane (the plane perpendicular to the preferred direction); and subsequent shear deformation (which includes “along-fibre” shear and transverse shear). Compared to the multiplicative decomposition used in our previous model for incompressible fibre reinforced composites [Guo, Z., Peng, X.Q., Moran, B., 2006, A composites-based hyperelastic constitutive model for soft tissue with application to the human annulus fibrosus. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 54(9), 1952–1971], the equi-biaxial deformation is introduced to achieve the desired volume change. To estimate the strain energy function for this composite, a cylindrical composite element model is developed. Analytically exact strain distributions in the composite element model are derived for the isochoric uniaxial deformation along the preferred direction, the equi-biaxial deformation on the transverse plane, as well as the “along-fibre” shear deformation. The effective shear modulus from conventional composites theory based on the infinitesimal strain linear elasticity is extended to the present finite deformation regime to estimate the strain energy related to the transverse shear deformation, which leads to an explicit formula for the strain energy function of the composite under a general finite deformation state.     

A phenomenological model for anisotropic creep in a multipass weld metal

Creep strength of welded joints can be estimated by continuum damage mechanics. In this case constitutive equations are required for different constituents of the welded joint: the weld metal, the heat-affected zone, and the parent material. The objective of this paper is to model the anisotropic creep behavior in a weld metal produced by multipass welding. To explain the origins of anisotropic creep, a mechanical model for a binary structure composed of fine-grained and coarse-grained constituents with different creep properties is introduced. The results illustrate the basic features of the stress redistribution and damage growth in the constituents of the weld metal and agree qualitatively with experimental observations. The structural analysis of a welded joint requires a model of creep for the weld metal under multiaxial stress states. For this purpose the engineering creep theory based on the creep potential hypothesis, the flow rule, and assumption of transverse isotropy is applied. The outcome is a coordinate-free equation for secondary creep formulated in terms of the Norton–Bailey–Odqvist creep potential and three invariants of the stress tensor. The material constants are identified according to the experimental data presented in the literature.     

A large strain plasticity model for anisotropic materials — composite material application

In this work a generalized anisotropic model in large strains based on the classical isotropic plasticity theory is presented. The anisotropic theory is based on the concept of mapped tensors from the anisotropic real space to the isotropic fictitious one. In classical orthotropy theories it is necessary to use a special constitutive law for each material. The proposed theory is a generalization of classical theories and allows the use of models and algorithms developed for isotropic materials. It is based on establishing a one-to-one relationship between the behavior of an anisotropic real material and that of an isotropic fictitious one. Therefore, the problem is solved in the isotropic fictious space and the results are transported to the real field. This theory is applied to simulate the behavior of each material in the composite. The whole behavior of the composite is modeled by incorporating the anisotropic model within a model based on a modified mixing theory.     

A FE formulation for elasto-plastic materials with planar anisotropic yield functions and plastic spin

In this article a stress integration algorithm for shell problems with planar anisotropic yield functions is derived. The evolution of the anisotropy directions is determined on the basis of the plastic and material spin. It is assumed that the strains inducing the anisotropy of the pre-existing preferred orientation are much larger than subsequent strains due to further deformations. The change of the locally preferred orientations to each other during further deformations is considered to be neglectable. Sheet forming processes are typical applications for such material assumptions. Thus the shape of the yield function remains unchanged. The size of the yield locus and its orientation is described with isotropic hardening and plastic and material spin.The numerical treatment is derived from the multiplicative decomposition of the deformation gradient and thermodynamic considerations in the intermediate configuration. A common formulation of the plastic spin completes the governing equations in the intermediate configuration. These equations are then pushed forward into the current configuration and the elastic deformation is restricted to small strains to obtain a simple set of constitutive equations. Based on these equations the algorithmic treatment is derived for planar anisotropic shell formulations incorporating large rotations and finite strains. The numerical approach is completed by generalizing the Return Mapping algorithm to problems with plastic spin applying Hill’s anisotropic yield function. Results of numerical simulations are presented to assess the proposed approach and the significance of the plastic spin in the deformation process.     

A second order constitutive theory for hyperelastic materials

The second order constitutive equation for a hyperelastic material with arbitrary symmetry is derived. In developing a second order theory, it is necessary to be discriminating in the choice of measures of deformation. Here the derivation is done in terms of the Biot strain, which has a direct physical interpretation in that its eigenvalues are the principal extensions of the deformation. The constitutive equation is specialized for the cases of isotropy and transverse isotropy. The isotropic equation derived here is compared with equations obtained by other authors in terms of the displacement gradient and the Green strain.