薄板理论的正交关系及其变分原理

利用平面弹性与板弯曲的相似性理论，将弹性力学新正交关系中构造对偶向量的思路推广到 各向同性薄板弹性弯曲问题，由混合变量求解法直接得到对偶微分方程并推导了对应的变分 原理. 所导出的对偶微分矩阵具有主对角子矩阵为零矩阵的特点. 发现了两个独立的、对称 的正交关系，利用薄板弹性弯曲理论的积分形式证明了这种正交关系的成立. 在恰当选择对 偶向量后，弹性力学的新正交关系可以推广到各向同性薄板弹性弯曲理论.     

Elasticity solutions for plane anisotropic functionally graded beams

This paper considers the plane stress problem of generally anisotropic beams with elastic compliance parameters being arbitrary functions of the thickness coordinate. Firstly, the partial differential equation, which is satisfied by the Airy stress function for the plane problem of anisotropic functionally graded materials and involves the effect of body force, is derived. Secondly, a unified method is developed to obtain the stress function. The analytical expressions of axial force, bending moment, shear force and displacements are then deduced through integration. Thirdly, the stress function is employed to solve problems of anisotropic functionally graded plane beams, with the integral constants completely determined from boundary conditions. A series of elasticity solutions are thus obtained, including the solution for beams under tension and pure bending, the solution for cantilever beams subjected to shear force applied at the free end, the solution for cantilever beams or simply supported beams subjected to uniform load, the solution for fixed–fixed beams subjected to uniform load, and the one for beams subjected to body force, etc. These solutions can be easily degenerated into the elasticity solutions for homogeneous beams. Some of them are absolutely new to literature, and some coincide with the available solutions. It is also found that there are certain errors in several available solutions. A numerical example is finally presented to show the effect of material inhomogeneity on the elastic field in a functionally graded anisotropic cantilever beam.     

弹性力学的一种正交关系

在弹性力学求解新体系中，将对偶向量进行重新排序后，提出了一种新的对偶微分矩阵，对于有一个方向正交的各向异性材料的三维弹性力学问题发现了一种新的正交关系．将材料的正交方向取为z轴，证明了这种正交关系的成立．对于z方向材料正交的各向异性弹性力学问题，新的正交关系包含弹性力学求解新体系提出的正交关系。     

Bending and stability analysis of gradient elastic beams

The problems of bending and stability of Bernoulli–Euler beams are solved analytically on the basis of a simple linear theory of gradient elasticity with surface energy. The governing equations of equilibrium are obtained by both a combination of the basic equations and a variational statement. The additional boundary conditions are obtained by both variational and weighted residual approaches. Two boundary value problems (one for bending and one for stability) are solved and the gradient elasticity effect on the beam bending response and its critical (buckling) load is assessed for both cases. It is found that beam deflections decrease and buckling load increases for increasing values of the gradient coefficient, while the surface energy effect is small and insignificant for bending and buckling, respectively.     

Analysis of micro-sized beams for various boundary conditions based on the strain gradient elasticity theory

Bending analysis of micro-sized beams based on the Bernoulli-Euler beam theory is presented within the modified strain gradient elasticity and modified couple stress theories. The governing equations and the related boundary conditions are derived from the variational principles. These equations are solved analytically for deflection, bending, and rotation responses of micro-sized beams. Propped cantilever, both ends clamped, both ends simply supported, and cantilever cases are taken into consideration as boundary conditions. The influence of size effect and additional material parameters on the static response of micro-sized beams in bending is examined. The effect of Poisson’s ratio is also investigated in detail. It is concluded from the results that the bending values obtained by these higher-order elasticity theories have a significant difference with those calculated by the classical elasticity theory.     

计及表面能的应变梯度理论本构参数识别

本文提出利用静态位移信息对一种计及表面能的应变梯度理论本构参数进行识别的求解策略.基于Vardoulakis和Sulem的计及表面能的简单线性应变梯度理论,文献[13]给出了伯努力-欧拉梁弯曲问题的正演解析模型,本文将其反演归结为两个带有不等式约束的非线性规划问题.在此基础上,采用黄金分割一维搜索方法进行求解,给出了数值验证,讨论了信息误差对反演结果的影响.结果显示,这种方法可以用来对应变梯度理论本构参数进行识别,即使在体积和表面能常数非常小的情况下,仍然能够得到满意的结果.     

Structure and properties of the solution space of general anisotropic laminates

The algebraic structure of the solution space of all types of anisotropic laminates is determined. The full space is shown to be the direct sum of a number of orthogonal eigenspaces, one for each simple or multiple eigenvalue, whose dimension equals the multiplicity. There are eight different types of eigenvalues, which combine to yield eleven distinct types of laminates with peculiar representations of the general solution. All such representations are explicitly obtained, along with the pseudo-metrics based on the binary product of the eigenvectors. This leads to the projection operators in the solution space, spectral sums and intrinsic tensors analogous to the Stroh–Barnett–Lothe tensors in 2-D elasticity. The present theoretical results are obtained by adopting a mixed formulation involving the deflection function and Airy’s stress function, and by using new laminate elasticity matrices different from the conventional stiffness matrices A, B and D. The new formulation also discloses an isomorphism relating each anisotropic laminate to an image laminate, such that every equilibrium solution of the former directly yields an image solution of the latter by interchanging the kinematical and kinetic variables and the in-plane and out-of-plane variables. This implies, in particular, that the classical bending theory of homogeneous plates and symmetric laminates is not a distinct subject, despite its historical development and pedagogical recognition, but is mathematically identical to the plane stress problem of anisotropic elasticity.     

基于辛体系的正交各向异性地基梁解析解

基于二维弹性理论, 利用Hellinger-Reissner变分原理, 通过引入对偶变量, 推导 了双参数地基上正交各向异性梁平面应力问题的辛对偶方程组; 采用分离变量法和本征展 开方法, 将原问题归结为求解零本征值本征解和非零本征值本征解, 得到了适用于任意横纵 比的梁的解析解. 由于在求解过程中不需要事先人为地选取试函数, 而是从梁的基本方程出 发, 直接利用数学方法求出问题的解, 使得问题的求解更加合理化. 其中, 地基对梁的力学 行为的影响看作是侧边边界条件, 类似于外载, 可通过零本征解的线性展开来评价, 非零本 征值本征解对应圣维南原理覆盖的部分. 还利用哈密顿变分原理, 给出了两端固支梁的 一种新的改进边界条件. 编程计算了细梁和深梁等算例, 研究了地基上梁的变形沿着厚度方 向的变化特性, 验证了辛方法的有效性.     

On the role of symmetry in Saint-Venant’s problem

In the relaxed Saint-Venant’s elastic problem, in virtue of Saint-Venant’s Postulate, the pointwise assignments of tractions at cylinder plane ends are replaced by the assignments of the corresponding resultant forces and moments. The solution indeterminacy so introduced is traditionally overcome by postulating that some specific features characterize the elastic state. In this work a relaxed incremental equilibrium problem is posed for a heterogenous anisotropic cylinder, whose tangent elasticity tensor field possesses the usual major and minor symmetries, is positive definite, independent from the axial coordinate and endowed with a plane of elastic symmetry orthogonal to the cylinder axis. Symmetry has been consistently employed to formulate the basic problems of extension, bending, torsion and flexure as symmetric and antisymmetric problems respectively. It is shown that Saint-Venant’s postulate, momentum balance and symmetry are sufficient, without resorting to any a priori assumption, to determine the general form of the displacement field and to remove the solution indeterminacy.     

Explicit solutions for the coupled stretching–bending problems of holes in composite laminates

Although the classical lamination theory was developed long time ago, it is still not easy to apply this theory to find the analytical solutions for the curvilinear boundary value problems especially when the stretching and bending are coupled each other. To overcome the difficulties, recently we developed a Stroh-like formalism for the general composite laminates. By using this formalism, most of the relations for the coupled stretching–bending problems can be organized into the forms of Stroh formalism for two-dimensional anisotropic elasticity problems. With this newly developed Stroh-like formalism, it becomes easier to obtain an analytical solution for the coupled stretching–bending problems of holes in composite laminates. Because the Stroh-like formalism is a complex variable formalism, the analytical solutions for the whole field are expressed in complex form. Through the use of some identities derived in this paper, the resultant forces and moments around the hole boundary are obtained explicitly in real form. Due to the lack of analytical solutions for the general cases, the comparison is made with the existing analytical solutions for some special cases. In addition, to show the generality of our analytical solutions, several numerical examples are presented to discuss the coupling effect of the laminates and the shape effect of the holes.     

A nonlinear composite beam theory

Presented here is a general theory for the three-dimensional nonlinear dynamics of elastic anisotropic initially straight beams undergoing moderate displacements and rotations. The theory fully accounts for geometric nonlinearities (large rotations and displacements) by using local stress and strain measures and an exact coordinate transformation, which result in nonlinear curvature and strain-displacement expressions that contain the von Karman strains as a special case. Extensionality is included in the formulation, and transverse shear deformations are accounted for by using a third-order theory. Six third-order nonlinear partial-differential equations are derived for describing one extension, two bending, one torsion, and two shearing vibrations of composite beams. They show that laminated beams display linear elastic and nonlinear geometric couplings among all motions. The theory contains, as special cases, the Euler-Bernoulli theory, Timoshenko's beam theory, the third-order shear theory, and the von Karman type nonlinear theory.     

Experiments and theory in strain gradient elasticity

Conventional strain-based mechanics theory does not account for contributions from strain gradients. Failure to include strain gradient contributions can lead to underestimates of stresses and size-dependent behaviors in small-scale structures. In this paper, a new set of higher-order metrics is developed to characterize strain gradient behaviors. This set enables the application of the higher-order equilibrium conditions to strain gradient elasticity theory and reduces the number of independent elastic length scale parameters from five to three. On the basis of this new strain gradient theory, a strain gradient elastic bending theory for plane-strain beams is developed. Solutions for cantilever bending with a moment and line force applied at the free end are constructed based on the new higher-order bending theory. In classical bending theory, the normalized bending rigidity is independent of the length and thickness of the beam. In the solutions developed from the higher-order bending theory, the normalized higher-order bending rigidity has a new dependence on the thickness of the beam and on a higher-order bending parameter, b_h. To determine the significance of the size dependence, we fabricated micron-sized beams and conducted bending tests using a nanoindenter. We found that the normalized beam rigidity exhibited an inverse squared dependence on the beam's thickness as predicted by the strain gradient elastic bending theory, and that the higher-order bending parameter, b_h, is on the micron-scale. Potential errors from the experiments, model and fabrication were estimated and determined to be small relative to the observed increase in beam's bending rigidity. The present results indicate that the elastic strain gradient effect is significant in elastic deformation of small-scale structures.     

On the solution singularity in the plane elasticity problem for a cantilever strip

The plane elasticity problem of bending of a cantilever strip whose material is assumed to be incompressible in the transverse direction is solved. It is shown that, in the classical statement of of the boundary condition for the fixed edge of the strip, the solution has a singularity at the corner points of the edge. Several cases of the strip fixation and loading characterized by the presence or absence of the solution singularity are considered. The strength of glass beams of three types, for which the theory of elasticity predicts whether the normal stress has a singularity, is studied experimentally. It is shown that the limit stresses for the beams of the types under study are practically the same, which testifies that the solution singularity does not have any physical nature.     

Bending and free vibrational analysis of bi-directional functionally graded beams with circular cross-section

The bending and free vibrational behaviors of functionally graded (FG) cylindrical beams with radially and axially varying material inhomogeneities are investigated. Based on a high-order cylindrical beam model, where the shear deformation and rotary inertia are both considered, the two coupled governing differential motion equations for the deflection and rotation are established. The analytical bending solutions for various boundary conditions are derived. In the vibrational analysis of FG cylindrical beams, the two governing equations are firstly changed to a single equation by means of an auxiliary function, and then the vibration mode is expanded into shifted Chebyshev polynomials. Numerical examples are given to investigate the effects of the material gradient indices on the deflections, the stress distributions, and the eigenfrequencies of the cylindrical beams, respectively. By comparing the obtained numerical results with those obtained by the three-dimensional (3D) elasticity theory and the Timoshenko beam theory, the effectiveness of the present approach is verified.     

Bending of small-scale Timoshenko beams based on the integral/differential nonlocal-micropolar elasticity theory: a finite element approach

A novel size-dependent model is developed herein to study the bending behavior of beam-type micro/nano-structures considering combined effects of nonlocality and micro-rotational degrees of freedom. To accomplish this aim, the micropolar theory is combined with the nonlocal elasticity. To consider the nonlocality, both integral(original)and differential formulations of Eringen's nonlocal theory are considered. The beams are considered to be Timoshenko-type, and the governing equations are derived in the variational form through Hamilton's principle. The relations are written in an appropriate matrix-vector representation that can be readily utilized in numerical approaches. A finite element(FE) approach is also proposed for the solution procedure. Parametric studies are conducted to show the simultaneous nonlocal and micropolar effects on the bending response of small-scale beams under different boundary conditions.     

Stroh-like formalism for the coupled stretching–bending analysis of composite laminates

Due to the two-dimensional nature of thin plates, the lamination theory considering the composite laminates with in-plane and plate bending problems coupling each other is treated in this paper by using complex variable formulation. By following the steps of Stroh formalism for two-dimensional linear anisotropic elasticity, a displacement complex variable formalism developed by the other researchers was introduced and re-derived in a different but more Stroh-like way. In addition, a brand-new mixed formalism (mixed use of displacements and stresses as basic functions) is established to compensate the displacement formalism. In order to transfer all the related formulae and mathematical techniques of the Stroh formalism to these two formalisms, the general solutions for the basic equations of lamination theory and their associated eigenrelations have been purposely arranged in the form of Stroh formalism. Moreover, by using the presently developed mixed formalism, the explicit expressions for the fundamental matrix and eigenvectors are obtained first time for the most general composite laminates. Furthermore, letting the coupling stiffness vanish, the formalism has been reduced to the case of symmetric laminates and checked by a recently developed Stroh-like formalism for the plate bending problems. The comparison between Stroh formalism for two-dimensional problem, Stroh-like formalism for plate bending problem, displacement formalism and mixed formalism is then made at the end of this paper, and through their connection some useful relations are obtained.     

Principle of correspondence of static boundary-value problems of nonlinear viscoelasticity with aging to boundary-value problems of the theory of elasticity

The principle of correspondence of boundary-value problems of the nonlinear nonuniform anisotropic theory of viscoelasticity to boundary-value problems of the theory of elasticity is formulated. The correspondence is established by means of integral transforms with previously unknown kernels. A class of viscoelastic materials for which these transforms can be reduced to boundary-value problems of fictitious elasticity is determined. Samara State Aerospace University, Samara 443086. Translated from Prikladnaya Mekhanika i Tekhnicheskaya Fizika, Vol. 39, No. 4, pp. 155–161, July–August, 1998.     

Continuum-based stability of anisotropic and auxetic beams

The critical buckling loads of pinned-pinned and cantilever beams are computed using the equations of three-dimensional elasticity rather than typical beam theories. These loads are influenced both by the nature of the assumed displacement field over the beam cross-section and by the inclusion of the terms from the full constitutive tensor. Of special interest are beams that are either anisotropic or auxetic. For anisotropic beams, an increased ratio of longitudinal to shear modulus for cantilevered beams increases the generation of shear buckling rather than flexural buckling. For isotropic auxetic beams, the values of Poisson ratio that define the limit between buckling loads that approach the classical buckling load from above or below are discussed.     

Vibration and stability of hybrid plate based on elasticity theory

The governing equations of elasticity theory for natural vibration and buck- ling of anisotropic plate are derived from Hellinger-Reissner＇s variational principle with nonlinear strain-displacement relations. Simply supported rectangular hybrid plates are studied with a precise integration method. This method, in contrast to the traditional finite difference approximation, gives highly precise numerical results that approach the full computer precision. So the results for natural vibration and stability of hybrid plates presented in the paper can be riewed as approximate analytical solutions. Furthermore, several types of coupling effects such as coupling between bending and twisting, and coupling between extension and bending, when the layer stacking sequence is asymmetric, are considered by only one set of governing equations.     

Size effects on strength, toughness and fatigue crack growth of gradient elastic solids

The present study investigates the microstructural size effect on the strength of a bar under axial loading, and on the toughness and crack growth of a beam under three-point bending within the framework of strain gradient elasticity. The gradient responses have been found considerably tougher as compared to the classical theory predictions and the observed deviation increases with increasing values of the non-dimensional parameter g/L (microstructural length over structural length). Based on the analytical solution of the strain energy release rate for the three-point bending case, a new, simple and universal, strain gradient elasticity, brittle fracture criterion and a new, size adjusted fatigue crack growth law have been established. Finally, the analytical predictions of the current modeling compare well with previous experimental data, based on three-point bending tests on single-edge notched concrete beams.