Electric charge of a lightning ball

The electric charge of a lightning ball is found by comparing the electrohydrodynamic stabilities of a charged drop in an electrostatic suspension and a lightning ball floating in a superposition of the gravitational field and the surface electric field. It has been assumed that the electric field strength at the surface is limited by a breakdown value. For a lightning ball radius of 15 cm, its charge is estimated as several microcoulombs. Accordingly, the density of electrostatic energy accumulated in the lightning ball is on the order of one-hundredth of a joule per square centimeter. The density of the material that constitutes the lightning ball has been estimated for the case when the electric field strength at the site of its origination is several times higher than that in fine weather. The density of the lightning ball turns out to differ from that of air by only a few percents.     

Water vapor condensation and the collapse of superheated water drops as possible causes of ball lightning

Ball lightning is modeled by the bulk of humid air heated to temperatures of 600–650 K and containing a multitude of charged drops and microbubbles of size 10⁻⁵ cm or less, as well as water vapor heated to a near-critical temperature. The condensation of the vapor in the microbubbles, followed by the cooling of resulting droplets, generates energy spent on the thermal radiation of ball lightning. The radiation of light and radio waves is explained by the motion of ions and electrons in the electric field of charged bubbles and droplets and by the thermal rotational motion of charged droplets. As a result of coagulation, the droplets overheat and tend to collapse. An external electric field, supersaturated water vapor condensation, and a number of other factors may contribute to the ball lightning explosion energy.     

Influence of thunderstorm atmospheric conditions on the properties of ball lightning

Rank-correlation methods are used to investigate the influence of thunderstorm atmospheric conditions on the lifetime (observation time) and diameter of ball lightning on the basis of an analysis of observations from the Stakhanov-Cole-Bychkov ball lightning PC database. For the analysis ball lightning events are ranked by diameter, the weather conditions are ranked in relation to humidity, which correlates with the charge state of the atmosphere, and thunderstorm conditions are ranked in relation to the electric field of the atmospheric ground layer. A statistical analysis shows that the lifetime and diameter of ball lightning decrease under conditions of increasing humidity and increasing electric field. The plausibility of this result from the standpoint of various existing ball lightning models is discussed. Zh. Tekh. Fiz. 67, 117–122 (April 1997)     

Stable spherically symmetric static charge separated configurations in the atmosphere: Implications on ball lightning and earthquake lights

A theoretical model is presented to show that spherically symmetric and dynamically stable charge separated structures of net zero charge that store energy could be formed by balancing of electrostatic forces and air pressure. The model evaluates the stored energy, the magnitude of separated charge and the pulsation frequency in terms of one parameter, which is a characteristic linear dimension of the system. Implications of the model on ball lightning and earthquake lights are discussed.     

Ferroelectric properties of triglycine sulfate crystals with a nonuniform distribution of chromium impurities

The specific features of the ferroelectric behavior of triglycine sulfate crystals with a nonuniform distribution of chromium impurities are analyzed. It is demonstrated that the dielectric hysteresis loops of the samples exhibit large shifts both along the polarization and electric field directions. The results obtained are well explained within the phenomenological approach with due regard for the gradient term in the expansion of the free energy. It is established that the unipolarity coefficient and the pyroelectric signal of nonuniform crystals remain virtually unchanged in multiple heating-cooling cycles.     

The energy injection into a fluid by stochastic volume forces and random stirring forces

The wavenumber spectrum of the stationary energy injection rate into an incompressible fluid described by the Navier-Stokes equations is evaluated for some simple realizations of stochastic volume as well as stirring forces. A general relation between energy injection, fluid's response, and force correlations is derived which was previously shown to be particularly simple for Gaussian distributed forces with white noise frequency spectrum. For two kinds of such model volume forces the energy injection rates are calculated: Fluid volume elements of variable size around randomly chosen positions are forced in one model centralsymmetrically in the other one anti-symmetrically under inversion with various force density profiles. The circumstances under which both models display an energy injection rate k ^–1 into a bandd k around the wavenumberk are discussed. As a simple realization of stochastic stirring forces externally moved hard spheres immersed in the fluid are considered. The equation of motion and energy balance for the velocity field of the combined system is discussed. The spectral distribution of energy injection by stirring is shown to be that of a volume force model.     

球形闪电及其形成的一种等离子体模型

根据已有文献描述的对球形闪电的观测和研究结果,总结了球形闪电的观测特征,介绍了目前对球形闪电的实验研究和理论研究现状,对球形闪电的结构模型进行了简单概括。还基于云对地的线状闪电,详述了一种形成球形闪电的等离子体模型。在该模型下,在某特定环境下线状闪电等离子体通道的一个区域坍塌成小的区域,形成球形闪电。指出了未来对球形闪电的研究方向。     

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根据已有文献描述的对球形闪电的观测和研究结果,总结了球形闪电的观测特征,介绍了目前对球形闪电的实验研究和理论研究现状,对球形闪电的结构模型进行了简单概括。还基于云对地的线状闪电,详述了一种形成球形闪电的等离子体模型。在该模型下,在某特定环境下线状闪电等离子体通道的一个区域坍塌成小的区域,形成球形闪电。指出了未来对球形闪电的研究方向。     

What type of force does the cochlear amplifier produce?

Recent experimental measurements suggest that the mechanical displacement of the basilar membrane (BM) near threshold in a viable mammalian cochlea is greater than 10(-8) cm, for a stimulus sound-pressure level at the eardrum of 20 microPa. The associated response peak is very sensitive to the physiological condition of the cochlea. In the formulation of all recent cochlear models, it has been explicitly assumed that this peak is produced by the cochlear amplifier injecting a large amount of energy into the cochlea, thereby altering the real component of the BM impedance. In this paper, a new cochlear model is described which produces a realistic response by assuming that the cochlear amplifier force acts at a phase such that the main effect is to reduce the imaginary component of the BM impedance. In this new model, the magnitude of the cochlear amplifier force required to produce a realistic response is much smaller than in the previous models. It is suggested that future experimental investigations should attempt to determine both the magnitude and the phase of the forces associated with the cochlear amplifier.     

快速H+2在固体中穿行时产生的动力学相互作用力及库仑爆炸图形的演化

模拟了快速H⁺₂在固体中穿行时产生的库仑爆炸过程．作用在单个氢离子H⁺上的力分别由阻止力、屏蔽的库仑力及尾力所组成．借助于等离子-极点近似介电函数,屏蔽的库仑力和尾力可由线性介电响应理论来确定．假定在初始入射时分子轴相对入射速度方向的取向是随机的．模拟结果表明：由于动力学相互作用力的影响,分子离子在穿行过程中其分子轴的取向明显地偏向于入射速度的方向. 关键词：     

Ball lightning and other meteorological phenomena

The properties of ball lightning can all be explained on the basis of an approximate thermodynamic assessment of the chemical processes which must be occurring. Detailed explanations involve rather complex interactions between the various electrical, chemical and physical effects. There is no thermodynamic reason why high temperatures are needed to start the most crucial component — thermochemical refrigeration. Thus related chemical processes could have a wider application.After considering how the various forces combine in ball lightning and its close relatives, the possibility is explored that evidence already exists for similar, but simpler, combinations of forces. Such evidence is found both in the meteorological literature and in many of the early studies on condensation and steam phase electrochemistry.Chemical processes which can lead to charging of the earth and to thunderstorm electricity are considered, as are some very relevant properties of tornadoes. Related effects may also be responsible for the unexpectedly high temperature gradient found near the inner coma of Halley's Comet. The reported change in direction of the Tunguska bolide as well as its explosion in the atmosphere may also result from processes like those which occur in ball lightning.The physical chemistry of ions in saturated water vapour is not understood quantitatively and this ignorance is part of the reason ball lightning has seemed so strange. The same lack of information has also inhibited any follow-up of important laboratory findings related to droplet condensation. Suggestions for future work are made and some of the problems discussed.     

Simulation of ball motion and energy transfer in a planetary ball mill

A kinetic model is proposed for simulating the trajectory of a single milling ball in a planetary ball mill, and a model is also proposed for simulating the local energy transfer during the ball milling process under no-slip conditions. Based on the kinematics of ball motion, the collision frequency and power are described, and the normal impact forces and effective power are derived from analyses of collision geometry. The Hertzian impact theory is applied to formulate these models after having established some relationships among the geometric, dynamic, and thermophysical parameters. Simulation is carried out based on two models, and the effects of the rotation velocity of the planetary disk and the vial-to-disk speed ratio ω/Ω on other kinetic parameters is investigated. As a result, the optimal ratio ω/Ω to obtain high impact energy in the standard operating condition at = 800 rpm is estimated, and is equal to 1.15.     

From an electron avalanche to the lightning discharge

The goal of this work is to describe qualitatively the physics of processes which begin with an electron avalanche and finish in a lightning discharge. A streamer model is considered that is based on studies of the recently discovered processes occurring in the prestreamer region. The investigation and analysis of these processes enabled making the conclusion that they are, in essence, the attendant processes, which ensure the electron avalanche-to-streamer transition, and may be interpreted as a manifestation of properties of a double charge layer exposed to the external electric field. The pressing problems of physical processes which form a lightning discharge are considered from the standpoint of new ideas about the mechanism of the streamer formation and growth. Causes of the emergence of coherent super-high-frequency radiation of a leader and the neutron production in a lightning discharge are revealed that have not been explained so far in the theory of gas discharge. Based also on new ideas about the lightning discharge, a simple ball-lightning model, providing answers to almost allquestions formulated from numerous observations on the behavior of ball lightning, is offered, and the need of a new design of lightning protection instead of the traditional rod is discussed.     

依据光谱研究闪电回击通道核心的特征参数

闪电回击通道核心中的大电流及其强电磁辐射是引发多种雷电灾害的主要根源。随着现代科技的飞速发展,闪电防护工作显得越为重要。为了完善闪电防护系统,需要从描述闪电回击通道核心的特征参数入手深入研究闪电通道形成和发展过程的微观物理机制。截至目前,光谱观测是获取闪电通道核心特征参数的最佳手段。2015年夏天在青海高原地区的野外试验中,利用由高速摄像机作为记录系统组装的无狭缝光栅摄谱仪,结合快天线地面电场测量仪,记录到一次包括四个回击的云地闪电放电过程的光谱以及与之同步的快电场变化信息。依据光谱,结合等离子体理论计算得到闪电回击通道核心的电导率。在此基础上,应用闪电电动力学模型计算了闪电回击速度、峰值电流、贯穿通道核心的电磁场以及通道核心单位长度的峰值功率等特征参数。结果表明,回击速度在(1.2～2.3)×108 m·s-1的范围内;贯穿回击通道核心的轴向电场、径向电场和磁感应强度的最大值分别在(1.42～1.74)×105 V·m-1,(8.22～9.99)×108 V·m-1和(1.51～2.83) T的范围内。当闪电回击的峰值电流在(7.52～24.05) kA的范围内时,回击通道核心的峰值功率在(0.63～1.92)×109 W·m-1的范围内。另外,分析了电导率、起始电场峰值、回击速度和峰值电流与峰值功率之间的相关性,结果发现峰值电流和峰值功率具有良好的线性关系。研究结果可为探索闪电回击通道形成和发展过程的微观物理机制提供参考依据。     

Calculation of mechanical properties of human red cells based on electrically induced deformation experiments

A mathematical model is presented to calculate the couple of forces elongating a three-axial ellipsoidal cell within a high frequency nonuniform electric field. The force was calculated through numerical integration of the polarisation induced force density as a function of the geometrical parameters of human red blood cells. The parameters were taken from previous experiments using video microscopy. The resulting shear moduli are some what higher than those obtained from mechanical measurements, but are in acceptable agreement. Our approach demonstrates that at high field strength an isotropic membrane tension is reached. A mechanical breakdown of cells at high field strength is not compatible with our calculations.     

Spatially hybrid computations for streamer discharges with generic features of pulled fronts: I. Planar fronts

Streamers are the first stage of sparks and lightning; they grow due to a strongly enhanced electric field at their tips; this field is created by a thin curved space charge layer. These multiple scales are already challenging when the electrons are approximated by densities. However, electron density fluctuations in the leading edge of the front and non-thermal stretched tails of the electron energy distribution (as a cause of X-ray emissions) require a particle model to follow the electron motion. But present computers cannot deal with all electrons in a fully developed streamer. Therefore, super-particle have to be introduced, which leads to wrong statistics and numerical artifacts.The method of choice is a hybrid computation in space where individual electrons are followed in the region of high electric field and low density while the bulk of the electrons is approximated by densities (or fluids). We here develop the hybrid coupling for planar fronts. First, to obtain a consistent flux at the interface between particle and fluid model in the hybrid computation, the widely used classical fluid model is replaced by an extended fluid model. Then the coupling algorithm and the numerical implementation of the spatially hybrid model are presented in detail, in particular, the position of the model interface and the construction of the buffer region. The method carries generic features of pulled fronts that can be applied to similar problems like large deviations in the leading edge of population fronts, etc.     

Production of ball-lightning-like luminous balls by electrical discharges in silicon

We performed electric arc discharges in pure Si to generate luminous balls with lifetime in the order of seconds and several properties usually reported for natural ball lightning. This simple experiment does not rely on energy sources and excitation mechanisms that are improbable in the natural phenomenon and clearly demonstrates the role of vaporization and oxidation of Si, as proposed by the Abrahamson-Dinniss theory for ball-lightning formation.     

RF discharge modeling considering time dependence and spatialnonlocality of the electron energy spectrum

RF discharge modeling in He is performed. New features of modeling are based on the solution of the nonstationary Boltzmann equation in the spatially nonuniform electric field, coupled with the equation for electric field and charged-particle densities. It is shown that the local equilibrium model for the electron energy spectrum in RF discharge is not valid for the pressure range ≃10 torr     

Recombination of a coulomb plasma and nonbinary interaction effects

A theory has been constructed for the recombination of a Coulomb plasma with allowance for the anomalous nature of diffusion along the energy axis in the negative energy region of Coulomb particles. These anomalies, which were revealed earlier by first-principles numerical simulation, are due to the dynamic memory of a classical Coulomb plasma. Two kinetic models are presented. The first takes random collisions with a hypothetical gas of two-level atoms into account. Comparison of the results of this model with first-principles calculations shows that the characteristic of the diffusion coefficients is missing. The second model takes the discrete nature of bound states into account. Calculations show that for an electron-hole plasma the recombination rate deviates substantially from the results of conventional theory only when either the recombination time is very short or the effect is masked by radiative recombination. For ion-ion plasma, the deviations from conventional recombination theory run to several orders of magnitude. This is of interest in relation to ball lightning.Institute of General Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences. Translated from Izvestiya Vysshikh Uchebnykh Zavedenii, Fizika, No. 1, pp. 68–89, January, 1993.