Influence of nucleation on the flow boiling heat transfer coefficient of a refrigerant mixture under varied heat flux conditions

The influence of nucleation on the flow boiling heat transfer coefficient of R-134a/R-290/R-600a refrigerant mixture is experimentally studied in a smooth horizontal tube of 12.7 mm diameter. The heat transfer coefficients are experimentally measured for stratified flow patterns under a varied heat flux condition; a condition found in the evaporator of refrigerators and deep freezers. The experiments are conducted in a counter-current heat exchanger test section. By regulating the flow rate and inlet temperature of acetone, which is the heating fluid flowing in the outer tube, a varied heat flux is provided to the refrigerant flowing in the inner tube. The refrigerant mass flow rate is fixed between 3 and 5 g s⁻¹ and its inlet temperature between −8.59 and 5.33°C, which corresponds to a pressure of 3.2 to 5 bar. The significance of nucleate boiling prevailing in the above-mentioned evaporators is highlighted. The experimental heat transfer coefficients are also compared with well known heat transfer correlations.     

Heat Transfer Characteristics for Condensation of R134a in a Vertical Smooth Tube

In this study, condensation of pure refrigerant R134a vapor inside a smooth vertical tube was experimentally investigated. The test section was made of a copper tube with inside diameter of 7.52 mm and length of 1 m. Experimental tests were conducted for mass fluxes in the range of 20–175 kg/m²s with saturation pressure ranging between 5.8 and 7 bar. The effects of mass flux, saturation pressure, and temperature difference between the refrigerant and tube inner wall (ΔT) on the heat transfer performance were analyzed through experimental data. Obtained results showed that average condensation heat transfer coefficient decreases with increasing saturation pressure or temperature difference (ΔT). In addition, for the same temperature difference (ΔT), heat can be removed from the refrigerant at a higher rate at relatively low pressure values. Under the same operating conditions, it was shown that average condensation heat transfer coefficient increases as mass flux increases. Finally, the most widely used heat transfer coefficient correlations for condensation inside smooth tubes were analyzed through the experimental data. The best fit was obtained with Akers et al.'s (1959) correlation with an absolute mean deviation of 22.6%.     

Forced Convective Condensation of R134A Vapor Inside a Vertical Microfin Tube

In this study, condensation of pure refrigerant R134a vapor inside a vertical 18° helical microfin tube was experimentally investigated. Tests were performed at saturation pressure of 5.7–5.9 bar with mass fluxes of 20–100 kg/m²s and heat fluxes of 1.7–5.3 kW/m². The effects of mass flux and the temperature difference between the refrigerant and tube wall (ΔT) on the heat transfer performance were analyzed throughout experimental data. For experiments in which ΔT is more than 2.5°C, the average condensation Nusselt number showed a tendency to be independent from ΔT. Heat transfer enhancement ratio was found to be 1.59–1.71, which is always higher than the heat transfer area enhancement factor (1.55). Fins always act as a turbulence promoter in the given experimental data range. Finally, the most widely used heat transfer coefficient correlations for condensation inside microfin tubes were analyzed through the experimental data. Best fit was obtained with Yu and Koyama's correlation with an absolute mean deviation of 17% and Kedzierski and Goncalves's correlation with an absolute mean deviation of 19%.     

Condensation heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of R-134a inside the flattened tubes at high mass flux and different saturation temperature

In this study, heat transfer coefficients and pressure drops of R-134a inside round and flat tubes are investigated experimentally with mass flux of 450, 550, and 650 kg m^?2 s^?1 at saturation temperatures of 35°, 40°, and 45°C. The effects of mass flux and saturation temperature on heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop are examined. The maximum enhancement factor and pressure drop penalty are obtained by flat tube (FT-2) up to 2.101 at 450 kg m^?2 s^?1 and 3.01 at 650 kg m^?2 s^?1, respectively. The correlation for flat tubes is proposed to predict the heat transfer coefficient within ±20% error.     

Evaporative Heat Transfer Characteristics of R404a and R134a under Varied Heat Flux Conditions

The two-phase heat transfer coefficients of R404A and R134a in a smooth tube of 7.49-mm inner diameter were experimentally investigated at low heat and mass flux conditions. The test section is a 10-m-long counter-flow horizontal double-tube heat exchanger with refrigerant flow inside the tube and hot fluid in the annulus. The heat transfer coefficients along the length of the test section were measured experimentally under varied heat flux conditions between 4 and 18 kW m^?2 and mass flux ranging between 57 and 102 kg m^?2 s^?1 (2.5 to 4.5 g s^?1) for saturation temperatures of ?10°C, ?5°C, and 0°C. The saturation temperatures correspond to pressures of 4.4, 5.2, and 6.1 bar for R404A and 2.0, 2.4, and 3.0 bar for R134a, respectively. The results showed that under the tested conditions, the contribution of the nucleate boiling mechanism is predominant in the heat transfer coefficient throughout the flow boiling process. The Kattan–Thome–Favrat flow pattern maps confirm the occurrence of stratified and stratified-wavy flow patterns for all of the tested conditions. The average heat transfer coefficient of R404A is estimated to be 26 to 30% higher than that of R134a for the same saturation temperature.     

Flow condensing heat transfer of R410A,R22, and R32 inside a micro-fin tube

An experimental study of condensation heat transfer characteristics of flow inside horizontal micro-fin tubes is carried out using R410A, R22, and R32 as the test fluids. This study especially focuses on the influence of heat transfer area upon the condensation heat transfer coefficients. The test sections were made of double tubes using the counter-flow type; the refrigerants condensation inside the test tube enabled heat to exchange with cooling water that flows from the annular side. The saturation temperature and pressure of the refrigerants were measured at the inlet and outlet of the test sections to defined state of refrigerants, and the surface temperatures of the tube were measured. A differential pressure transducer directly measured the pressure drops in the test section. The heat transfer coefficients and pressure drops were calculated using the experimental data. The condensation heat transfer coefficient was measured at the saturation temperature of 48°C with mass fluxes of 50–380 kg/(m²s) and heat fluxes of 3–12 kW/m². The values of experimental heat transfer coefficient results are compared with the predicted values from the existing correlations in the literature, and a new condensation heat transfer coefficient correlation is proposed.     

Experimental Investigation of Heat Transfer at Downflow Condensation of Refrigerant R-21 in Assemblage of Minichannels

Presented are results of experimental investigation of heat transfer at downflow condensation of refrigerant R-21 in a vertical assemblage of minichannels in a plate-fin heat exchanger with plane fins. Selection of refrigerant was caused by the fact that its physical properties at room temperature are similar to those of cryogenic liquids at low temperatures. A pattern of vapor-liquid downflow in the heat exchanger channels was plotted using the working section with a transparent wall. For the mass velocity in the range of 30 to 50 kg/m²s and the wall subcooling below ?2?C, the dependence of the heat transfer coefficient on the mass vapor content is determined and a method is proposed to calculate the heat transfer coefficient that is in good agreement with the experimental data.     

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF HEAT TRANSFER FROM A DISCRETE SOURCE TO A CIRCULAR LIQUID JET WITH ANNULAR COLLECTION OF THE SPENT FLUID

This study reports an experimental investigation of evaporative heat transfer and pressure drop of R-134a flowing downward inside vertical corrugated tubes with different corrugation pitches. The double tube test section is 0.5 m long with refrigerant flowing in the inner tube and hot water flowing in the annulus. The inner tubes are comprised of one smooth tube and three corrugated tubes with different corrugation pitches of 6.35, 8.46, and 12.7 mm. The test runs are performed at evaporating temperatures of 10°C, 15°C, and 20°C; heat fluxes of 20, 25, and 30 kW/m²; and mass fluxes of 200, 300, and 400 kg/m²s. The experimental data obtained from the smooth tube are plotted with flow pattern map for vertical flow. Comparisons between smooth and corrugated tubes on the heat transfer and pressure drop are also discussed. It is observed that the heat transfer coefficient and frictional pressure drop obtained from the corrugated tubes are higher than those from the smooth tube. Furthermore, the heat transfer coefficient and frictional pressure drop increase as the corrugation pitch decreases. The maximum heat transfer enhancement factor and penalty factor are up to 1.22 and 4.0, respectively.     

R32/R134a在微通道内流动沸腾特性

研究非共沸混合工质R32/R134a(质量比,25%/75%)在水平微尺度通道内流动沸腾换热规律。在各种工况下进行了非共沸混合工质R32/R134a在水平微尺度管道内流动沸腾换热的实验,考察了质量流量G、热流密度q、质量干度x对微尺度通道内流动沸腾换热系数的影响。研究表明:在热流密度、质量流量都较低的区域,对细管道,换热系数与热流密度的关联度较大;而对微管道,换热系数受影响的因素比较多,并在干度为0.6时出现"干涸"现象,使得换热系数急剧下降。在质量流量高的区域,对细管道,热流密度对换热系数的影响很小;而对微尺度管道,当干度为0.06时换热系数发生转变,随质量干度的增加先减小后增大,热流密度增大到一定的阶段后,换热系数不再随热流密度变化。     

Non-Uniform Onset of Nucleate Flow Boiling of R-134a Inside a Glass Minichannel

The present work is an experimental investigation of the incipient boiling of R134a inside a circular glass minichannel mounted horizontally and equipped with a series of transparent indium tin oxide heaters. The effects of heat flux input levels and refrigerant mass fluxes on the onset nucleate boiling process and on the saturated boiling heat transfer rate are quantitatively explored. The flow pattern visualizations, carried on by means of a high-speed camera, show that the nucleation process is oddly non-uniform: the first vapor bubbles are always generated on the upper side of the tube and lead to a first wall temperature drop. A further increase in the heat flux values results in an increased wall superheat until bubble nucleation also originates on the lower side of the tube, causing a second wall temperature drop. Finally, at higher heat input levels, the boiling process becomes uniformly distributed on the inner tube surface. This phenomenon occurred also after a 180° rotation of the glass tube, and, after a critical analysis of the potential origins, it remains presently unexplained. An evaluation of heat transfer coefficients for low vapor quality regimes is finally presented.     

R134a在板式换热器中的凝结换热实验研究

本文对R134a在板式换热器内的凝结换热特性进行了实验研究,通过测量换热器中冷却水及板壁温度获得了局部凝结换热系数随蒸气干度、质量流量及热流密度的变化关系.实验结果表明,凝结换热系数随着蒸气干度增加而增加.文章还将实验结果与部分文献数据进行了比较与分析.本文的研究为换热准则关系式的发展提供了实验数据.     

Heat transfer in boiling of refrigerant R-21 in a downward flow in an assembly of minichannels

The paper presents the results of an experimental study of heat transfer in boiling of refrigerant R-21 in a downward flow in a vertical assembly of minichannels of a plate-fin heat exchanger. Characteristic regimes of vapor-liquid flow and heat transfer coefficients have been obtained for the case of plain fins in the ranges of low mass velocities and heat fluxes that are typical of the industry but poorly studied. The obtained data show no significant dependence of the heat transfer coefficient on the heat flux density and mass velocity, which may be explained by the decisive effect of the evaporation of thin liquid film on the heat transfer at low heat flux density.     

非共沸工质R134a /R245fa的管内冷凝换热特性研究

为研究非共沸工质的冷凝换热特性,本文基于Nusselt理论,建立了竖直圆管内非共沸混合蒸汽的冷凝模型,研究了不同质量比例的R134a/R245fa在不同条件下的冷凝换热特性,结果表明:混合蒸汽质量比例不同,两种组分的露点温度不同,混合物的冷凝特性不同,低沸点组分的气-液相份额差是表征传质阻力的关键因素;混合蒸汽质量比例、质量流速、壁面温度、压力是影响非共沸混合工质冷凝换热的重要因素。     

斜翅型冷凝强化换热管传热性能的实验研究

对一种斜翅型外翅片带内螺纹的冷凝强化换热管进行传热性能的实验研究。管外冷凝换热的制冷剂为R134a,管内对流换热的介质为水。分别在定热流密度与定水流速的条件下进行一系列工况的实验,得到相应的实验数据。在定热流密度条件下,利用Wilson图解法得到管内的换热系数数据及相应的计算关联式。在定水流速的条件下,利用分离方法得到管外冷凝换热系数数据及相应的计算关联式。将强化管换热系数数据与光管换热系数的理论计算值进行了比较,结果表明:冷凝强化换热管管内对流换热的强化倍率为2.4,管外凝结换热系数随壁面过冷度的增加而增大,管外凝结换热的强化倍率为:1.78～3.92。     

Boiling heat transfer of refrigerant R-21 in upward flow in plate-fin heat exchanger

The article presents the results of experimental investigation of boiling heat transfer of refrigerant R-21 in upward flow in a vertical plate-fin heat exchanger with transverse size of the channels that is smaller than the capillary constant. The heat transfer coefficients obtained in ranges of small mass velocities and low heat fluxes, which are typical of the industry, have been poorly studied yet. The characteristic patterns of the upward liquid-vapor flow in the heat exchanger channels and the regions of their existence are detected. The obtained data show a weak dependence of heat transfer coefficient on equilibrium vapor quality, mass flow rate, and heat flux density and do not correspond to calculations by the known heat transfer models. A possible reason for this behavior is a decisive influence of evaporation of thin liquid films on the heat transfer at low heat flux.     

Flow boiling heat transfer of refrigerant R21 in microchannel heat sink

Boiling heat transfer in a refrigerant R 21 flow in a microchannel heat sink is studied. A stainless steel heat sink with a length of 120 mm contains ten microchannels with a size of 640×2050 μm at cross-section with a wall roughness of 10 μm. The local heat-transfer coefficient distribution along the heat sink length is obtained. The ranges of parameters are: mass flow from 68 to 172 kg/m²s, heat fluxes from 16 to 152 kW/m², and vapor quality from 0 to 1. The maximum values of the heat transfer coefficient are observed at the inlet of microchannels. The heat transfer coefficients decrease substantially along the length of channels under high heat flux conditions and, on the contrary, change insignificantly under low heat flux condition. A comparison with the well-known models of flow boiling heat transfer is performed and the range of applicability is defined.     

非共沸混合工质水平管内凝结换热折算因子的实验关联

1前言前文山提出了计算环状流和波状分层流型下非共沸混合工质在水平管内凝结的换热系数的折算方法。租界面温度Ti的取值对计算结果影响很大。现在常用的方法是根据液膜和气相区传热传质的经验公式确定问，不仅计算工作量大，且无公认的计算方式。这给工程计算带来许多不便。本文取Ti二（Tv十几w，即气相温度Tv和壁面温度见的算术平均值，以计算相界面上的平衡参数，并将前文中的折算因子计算式改为如下形式：对环状流将由于相界面温度的取法所引起的误差归于用实验数据确定的经验系数A、B与经验指数p、q。式中Ja为雅各布数，无量纲温度0…     

Thermal—fluid modelling of an air—cooled condenser for refrigerants

A steady state thermodynamic model for an air—cooled finned—tube condenser, used in a typical deep freezer vapour compression system, operating with pure and refrigerant mixtures has been developed using finite difference method. The heat transfer aspects in the condenser are treated uniquely for superheated, two—phase and subcooled regimes and studied for various heat load, pressure, temperature, and mass flow rate. The condensation heat transfer coefficient, the tube length required for condensation, the degree of subcooling, and the temperature glide for different ambient temperatures are estimated. The simulation and the experimental results are in good agreement.     

BOILING HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS IN A HORIZONTAL TUBE BUNDLE

The effect of thermal environment on boiling heat transfer performance in a section of a horizontal tube bundle was investigated using R-113 as the working fluid. The in-line tube bundle has five columns and 27 rows with a pitch-to-diameter ratio of 1.3. Heal transfer coefficients obtained from the instrumented tube in the tube bundle with only one tube heated while the other tubes remained unhealed and with all the lubes in the bundle heated are reported for a range of heat flux, pressure, mass flow rate, and quality. The results showed that heat transfer coefficient of a tube in a heated bundle is slightly higher than that in an unhealed bundle, with the variation of heat transfer coefficient decreasing as heat flux, mass flow rate, or pressure increased. It was also found that higher quality would tend to improve the heat transfer. However, the effect of quality disappeared as heat flux, mass flow rate, and pressure increased. Based on the experimental data, the mechanism of the heat transfer augment due to thermal environment was analyzed. It was proposed that fluid agitation and thin liquid film formation are two main factors for a heated bundle to have better transfer performance than an unhealed bundle,     

Numerical simulation of tissue freezing by liquid nitrogen based cryoprobe

A model is presented to simulate the cooling processes during tumor cryosurgery with different kinds of flows through the cryoprobe. The heat flux between the cryoprobe wall and the tumor, the heat transfer coefficient under different inflow conditions are obtained numerically. The impact of the inlet mass flow rate, gas volume fraction on these parameters is investigated. It is found that the heat transfer coefficient decreased significantly when inflow changed from two-phase annular flow to droplet flow, and to gas flow. The inlet gas volume fraction and flow velocity only significantly affect the freezing ability of the probe when the inflow is gas or in droplet phase. Simulation of the tumor temperature profiles under different flow conditions show that the heat transfer coefficient is a crucial parameter in temperature prediction during cryosurgery. Results indicate that when the cryoprobe wall is assumed at a constant temperature conventionally, the cooling effect could be overestimated. It would be more reasonable to use the constant wall heat transfer coefficient to simulate the cooling progress under a specific flow.