Urban Third Grade Teachers' Practices and Perceptions in Science Instruction with English Language Learners

The study examined relationships among key domains of science instruction with English language learning (ELL) students based on teachers' perceptions of their classroom practices (i.e., what they think they do) and actual classroom practices (i.e., what they are observed doing). The four domains under investigation included: (1) teachers' knowledge of science content; (2) teaching practices to support scientific understanding; (3) teaching practices to support scientific inquiry; and (4) teaching practices to support English language development during science instruction. The study involved 38 third‐grade teachers participating in the first‐year implementation of a professional development intervention aimed at improving science and literacy achievement of ELL students in urban elementary schools. Based on teachers' self‐reports, practices for understanding were related to practices for inquiry and practices for English language development. Based on classroom observations in the fall and spring, practices for understanding were related to practices for inquiry, practices for English language development, and teacher knowledge of science content. However, we found a weak to non‐existent relationship between teachers' self‐reports and observations of their practices.     

The Indiana Science Initiative: Lessons from a Classroom Observation Study

The Indiana Science Initiative (ISI) is a systemic effort to reform K–8 science education. The program provides teachers with professional development, reform‐oriented science modules, and materials support. To examine the impact of the initiative's professional development, a participant observation study was conducted in the program's pilot year. Five teachers in grades 3–6 were observed and interviewed as they implemented the ISI‐provided modules. Analysis of the observation data revealed that the teachers incorporated each of the features of inquiry science instruction. However, they did not consistently teach in a way that was aligned with the intent of the ISI. Examination of interview data provided insight into influences on teachers' use of inquiry with the ISI‐provided modules. These data revealed that teachers were aware of the intent of the ISI and attempted to align their instruction. However, teachers were influenced by their perceptions of students' behavior and abilities as well as timing and the appropriate level of teacher control needed to facilitate science instruction. The research suggests that professional development activities should prepare teachers to help learners evaluate explanations against alternatives, connect explanations to scientific knowledge, and provide strategies to address teachers' perceptions of students, timing, and teacher control.     

Teaching Science as Science Is Practiced: Opportunities and Limits for Enhancing Preservice Elementary Teachers' Self‐Efficacy for Science and Science Teaching

Science teaching in elementary schools, or the lack thereof, continues to be an area of concern and criticism. Preservice elementary teachers' lack of confidence in teaching science is a major part of this problem. In this mixed‐methods study, we report the impacts of an inquiry‐based science course on preservice elementary teachers' self‐efficacy for science and science teaching, understanding of science, and willingness to teach it in their future careers. Our findings suggest that for some students, the inquiry‐based science course positively influenced their self‐efficacy for science and science teaching. Gains were made in a majority of students' conceptual understanding of science, understanding of the science process and scientific research, and confidence with science and science teaching. The subjects did not experience the course uniformly, however. Rather, there appeared to be two distinct groups, one on a trajectory of improving their outlook on science teaching and one worsening. The results presented here therefore provoke some interesting questions regarding preservice elementary teachers' preparation for science teaching.     

Comparing Science Teaching Styles to Students' Perceptions of Scientists

Many educational researchers seem to concur with the idea that, among other factors, the teacher's teaching style has some impact on student learning and the perceptions students develop about science learning and the work of scientists. In this study, nine middle grades teachers' teaching styles were assessed using the Draw‐a‐Science‐Teacher‐Teaching Test Checklist (DASTT‐C) and categorized along a continuum from didactic to inquiry/constructivist in orientation. Students' (n = 339) perceptions of scientists were determined using the Draw‐a‐Scientist‐Test Checklist (DAST‐C). Teachers' teaching styles and their students' perceptions of scientists were then compared using nonparametric correlational methods. Results showed that no significant correlation existed between the two measures for the population studied. Although the study provides no understanding about when or how relationships developed between teachers' teaching styles and students' perceptions of scientists, trends in the results give rise to some concerns regarding the preparation of future science teachers and the in‐service development of practicing teachers.     

An Extended Examination of Preservice Elementary Teachers' Science Teaching Self‐Efficacy

The purpose of this study was to examine programmatic factors that positively impact changes in elementary preservice teachers' teaching self‐efficacy beliefs. Specifically, it examined the impact of science methods courses, student teaching, and science content courses on elementary preservice teachers' science teaching self‐efficacy. The Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument Form B was administered, using a pre/post design, to undergraduate elementary education majors in specific education and science content courses. A total of 399 responses were collected, of which 172 had matching pre/post surveys suitable for analysis. Students in the science content courses and student teaching seminar showed no significant change in either the Personal Science Teaching Efficacy (PSTE) or the Science Teaching Outcome Expectancy scales during the time they were enrolled in the classes. Significant gains in PSTE were found for students enrolled in the science methods course. The specific design of the education program and methods course may be responsible for these changes.     

Inquiry Teaching and Learning: The Best Math Class Study

This research reports on prospective middle school teachers' perceptions of a “best mathematics class” during their involvement in an inquiry‐designed mathematics content course. Grounded in the prestigious Glenn Commission report ( U.S. Department of Education, 2000 ), the study examined the prospective teachers' perceptions of effective mathematics instruction both prior to and after completing the inquiry course. Pre‐essay analysis revealed that students could be grouped into one of two categories: the Watch‐Learn‐Practice view and the Self as Initiator view. Post‐essay analysis indicated that over two thirds of all students involved in the study changed their views of a best math class after the inquiry courses. The Watch‐Learn‐Practice group's changes focused on developing reasoning skills and learning how one “knows” in mathematics. The Self as Initiator group noted expanded roles for the students, particularly emphasizing the importance of going beyond basic requirements to think deeply about the why and how of mathematics and expanded views of the benefits of group learning.     

Constructing Elementary Teachers' Beliefs,Attitudes, and Practical Knowledge Through an Inquiry‐Based Elementary Science Course

This study examines inservice elementary school teachers' beliefs, attitudes, and practical knowledge toward inquiry‐based science instruction and the influence of an inquiry‐based elementary science course on teachers' beliefs, attitudes, and practical knowledge regarding inquiry. Both surveys and a case study were administered to the 14 elementary school teachers before and after completing a three‐credit elementary science methods course that was inquiry‐based. The findings showed that the teachers' beliefs, attitudes, and practical knowledge about inquiry were clearly influenced by the course. Through this course, the teachers developed fairly positive beliefs and attitudes that promoted inquiry instruction. The majority of participants also improved their knowledge and skills of conducting inquiry as they successfully practiced inquiry‐instruction in their science teachings.     

Exploring the Relationship Between Teaching Efficacy and Cultural Efficacy of Novice Science Teachers in High‐Needs Schools

This qualitative case study sought to investigate what relationship exists between teaching efficacy and cultural efficacy of novice science teachers in high‐needs, high‐minority urban schools. One major theme—the importance of establishing positive teacher–student relationships—surrounding teaching efficacy in the context of cultural efficacy emerged. The data sources included: (a) teachers' responses to a focus group interview conducted at the end of their first year, (b) written reports and documentation from university‐based field supervisors' observations during the teachers' first year, and (c) teachers' self‐reported responses on the Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument designed to measure science teaching efficacy. Final analysis of the data reflects a strong relationship between teaching efficacy and practice within the context of culture. The results of this study also indicated an existing relationship between teaching efficacy and cultural efficacy through cultural connections with students. Encouraging the development of teacher efficacy in the context of cultural efficacy becomes important at all levels of teacher preparation, especially to ensure the retention of high‐quality science teachers in high‐needs schools.     

Prospective Elementary Teachers' Knowledge of Teaching Science as Argument: A Case Study

The National Research Council emphasizes the centrality of discourse and practices associated with constructing, evaluating, and using scientific explanations. These expectations increase already daunting challenges for those who teach science at the elementary school level. This study followed a multiparticipant case study approach examining prospective elementary teachers' self‐reports of teaching science as argument. Findings yield that the presence of opportunities for physical experimentation with firsthand data during science instruction helped participants increase their emphasis on evidence‐based explanations. Participants also viewed science talks as essential and fundamental for engaging students in evidence‐based explanations. Finally, participants demonstrated attention to scientific subject matter. These findings are discussed in terms of their implications for teacher education.     

Reflection and Problem Solving: Integrating Methods of Teaching Mathematics and Science

An innovative teacher preparation course which integrates methods of teaching elementary mathematics and science was the context of this study. The course was developed as a prototype for the Teachers As Reflective Problem Solvers model for the preparation of elementary mathematics and science teachers. Data from 35 preservice elementary teachers' performance-portfolios were analyzed to reveal patterns of change in their reflections and problem-solving performance during the semester. Many of the students' reflections changed from task-focused learning to broader teaching applications. No relationship was discerned between changes in students' reflections and changes in their levels of problem-solving performance, although both increased during the semester. A significant correspondence was found, however, between students' perceptions of their problem-solving abilities and their actual performance in solving teaching problems in integrated mathematics and science contexts.     

A Model for Extending Hands-On Science to Be Inquiry Based

Many popular hands-on science activities, as traditionally implemented, fail to support inquiry-based science instruction, because the activities direct teachers to terminate lessons prematurely. This paper presents a model describing one approach for extending seemingly limited hands-on activities into full-inquiry science lessons. The strategy involves (a) discrepant events to engage students in direct inquiry; (b) teacher-supported brainstorming activities to facilitate students in planning investigations; (c) effective written job performance aids to provide structure and support; (d) requirements that students provide a product of their research, which usually includes a class presentation and a graph; and (e) class discussion and writing activities to facilitate students in reflecting on their activities and learning. The paper presents the model as a tool for facilitating science teachers' efforts to understand and implement the type of powerful, effective, and manageable inquiry-based science instruction called for in the National Science Education Standards.     

A Review of the Integration of Science and Mathematics: Implications for Further Research

Building on the earlier analysis by Berlin (1991) , this paper reviews various studies on integrating mathematics and science in the 1990s and provides some implications for further research. The areas identified for further exploration include comparison of the nature of mathematics and science, epistemological debates in mathematics and in science education, the bases used to emphasize science over mathematics or vice versa, empirical evidence of effectiveness of integration, connections between teacher education programs for integration and teachers' subsequent classroom teaching practices, perceptions of integration on the part of teacher educators, contextual difficulties in implementing integrated approaches and possible solutions, and rationales of integrating mathematics and science through technology. In order to help all students become scientifically literate, which most reform documents call for, more focused attention on integration of curriculum and instruction is necessary.     

Inventing Creativity: An Exploration of the Pedagogy of Ingenuity in Science Classrooms

Concerns with the ability of U.S. classrooms to develop learners who will become the next generation of innovators, particularly given the present climate of standardized testing, warrants a closer look at creativity in science classrooms. The present study explored these concerns associated with teachers' classroom practice by addressing the following research question: What pedagogical factors, and related teacher conceptions, are potentially related to the demonstration of creativity among science students? Seventeen middle‐level, high school, and introductory‐level college science teachers from a variety of school contexts participated in the study. A questionnaire developed for this study, interviews, and classroom observations were used in order to explore potential areas of relatedness between pedagogical factors and manifestations of student creativity in science. Five categories ultimately emerged and described potential areas in which teachers would have to explicitly plan for creativity. These areas could inform the pedagogical considerations that teachers would have to make within their lesson plans and activities in order to support its manifestation among students. These provide a starting point for science teachers and science teacher educators to consider how to develop supportive environments for student creative thinking.     

Reform Teaching Strategies Used by Student Teachers

The purposes of this study were to observe the teaching practices occurring in student teachers' science and mathematics K‐12 classrooms, compare the student teachers' perceptions of their teaching with what was actually occurring in their classrooms, and determine which college faculty members and courses these student teachers felt contributed to the teaching methods they used. Data on each student teacher were gathered via field notes of three classes, an observation protocol completed after each lesson, and an interview. Composites were written for each of the students. The total data set of all composites was examined to see if any patterns generalizable to the whole were evident. Differences between and among grade levels and content areas surfaced and are discussed.     

Investigating Elementary Teachers' Conceptions of Animal Classification

Numerous studies have been conducted regarding alternative conceptions about animal diversity and classification, many of which have used a cross‐age approach to investigate how students' conceptions change over time. None of these studies, however, have investigated teachers' conceptions of animal classification. This study was intended to augment the findings of past research by exploring the conceptions that elementary teachers possess about animal classification. Using interviews and written items, we documented teachers' conceptions about animal classification and compared them with student conceptions identified in previous research studies. Many of the teachers' conceptions observed in this study were similar to students' conceptions in that they were often too limited or too general compared with scientifically accepted conceptions. Also, the teachers in this study frequently used “non‐defining” characteristics, such as locomotion and habitat, to classify animals. As a result, several misclassifications were observed in the teachers' responses to the written items. Notably, the results of our study demonstrate that teachers often have the same alternative conceptions about animal classification as students. We explore some possible explanations for these alternative conceptions and discuss the instructional implications of the findings.     

Reforming Elementary Science Teacher Preparation: What About Extant Teaching Beliefs?

A common maxim in the educational profession is that one teaches the way one is taught. Indications are that preservice teachers' beliefs, attitudes, and practices may be linked to previous experiences. Calderhead & Robson (1991) underscored this concern by asserting that teachers use good teachers as models for developing their own images as teachers. Others have argued that the images held by teachers are used as frames of reference for their own teaching practices. In this article, preservice teachers' perceptions of themselves as science teachers are examined. The assertion is made that a long history of stereotypical science learning experiences — in elementary school, high school, and college — powerfully impacts the way in which elementary preservice teachers understand the nature of science and come to believe science should be taught. In the current study, the images and perceptions preservice teachers bring to science methods courses (as evidenced in drawings of themselves as science teachers at work) are identified and ways these images and perceptions may have been formed and how they can be reinforced or modified during a science methods course are discussed.     

Preservice Mathematics Teachers' Ambiguous Views of Technology

While the nature of mathematics and the nature of science have received much attention, there is a lack of research on the nature of technology. This study sought to investigate preservice teachers' perceptions about the nature of technology and its role in mathematics education and society. Based on two philosophical theories of technology, the author analyzed 22 preservice teachers' philosophy statements on educational technology and in‐depth interviews with 5 of them. The findings reveal that the teachers had ambiguous notions about the characteristics of technology, which were contingent on contexts of technology use, human–machine relationships, and other factors. However, in most cases, they had an instrumental view of technology and a techno‐centric mindset. Although the participating teachers were encouraged to reflect on broad socio‐cultural issues associated with technology, most of them did not have a linguistic and conceptual framework from which to examine thoroughly how technology might influence human consciousness. As the educational technology and teacher education communities have broadened their understanding of technology and what it takes for an organizational change, preservice teachers need adequate opportunities to explore the pedagogical, epistemological, ontological, and cultural implications of the educational use of technology.     

Professional Development Strategically Connecting Mathematics and Science: The Impact on Teachers' Confidence and Practice

The press to integrate mathematics and science comes from researchers, business leaders, and educators, yet research that examines ways to support teachers in relating these disciplines is scant. Using research on science and mathematics professional development, we designed a professional development project to help elementary teachers improve their teaching of mathematics and science by strategically connecting these disciplines. The purposes of this study are: (a) to identify changes in teachers' confidence and practice after participating in the professional development and (b) to identify different ways to connect mathematics and science during the professional development. We use a Likert‐scale survey to assess changes in teachers' confidence related to teaching mathematics and science. In addition, we report on a thematic analysis of teachers' written responses to open‐ended questions that probed teachers' perceived changes in practice. We analyze field notes from observations of project workshops to document different types of opportunities for connecting mathematics and science. We conclude with implications for future professional development that connects mathematics and science in meaningful ways, as well as suggestions for future research.     

Analysis of Environmental and General Science Teaching Efficacy Among Instructors with Contrasting Class Ethnicity Distributions: A Four‐Dimensional Assessment

The context and nature of teacher efficacy beliefs provide a method upon which to explore science teachers' perceptions of their teaching effectiveness and student achievement as a function of ethnicity. Promotion of a more in‐depth knowledge of science teaching efficacy requires cross‐sectional and longitudinal investigations. In this study, a bi‐disciplinary four‐dimensional assessment is utilized to measure personal teacher efficacy, outcome expectancy, classroom management (CM), and student engagement (SE). Major findings from this study conclude that science teaching efficacy was markedly lower for science teachers with high minority class ethnicity distribution (CED) when compared with efficacy levels of teachers with high nonminority CED. Additionally, when examining efficacy dimensions separately, markedly lower mean efficacy dimension responses were consistent for teachers with high minority CED; however, only CM and SE were considered statistically different. Results were consistent for both the environmental and general science disciplines.