Heuristic search for a predictive strain-energy function in nonlinear elasticity

In this work, a new, quasi-structural model – bootstrapped eight-chain model – is proposed as a modification to the strain energy of eight-chain model [Arruda, E.M., Boyce, M.C., 1993. A three-dimensional constitutive model for the large stretch behaviour of rubber elastic materials. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 41, 389—412] that invokes the Langevin chain statistics. This development has been led to by our heuristic search into how the strain energy of eight-chain model may be adapted in order to account better for the mechanical behaviour of elastomeric materials in both linear and nonlinear elastic regimes [Treloar, L.R.G., 1944. Stress–strain data for vulcanised rubber under various types of deformation. Trans. Faraday Soc. 40, 59–70]. The eight-chain model appears to produce very similar results in predicting biaxial stress to those of a first stretch-invariant model that gives a good fit in uniaxial extension and, thus, it is shown that the former can not be significantly enhanced within the limitation of the latter. Evaluation of predictive capability for an additive invariant-separated form of strain energy shows that an explicit inclusion of a second stretch-invariant function would not work and that any thus added term ought to be dependent on both the first and second stretch-invariants of deformation tensor, and hints that an improvement is possibly needed at low strain. The composite and filament models [Miroshnychenko, D., Green, W.A., Turner, D.M., 2005. Composite and filament models for the mechanical behaviour of elastomeric materials. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 53 (4), 748–770] have their strain-energy functions in that suggested form and cope very well with predicting the experimental data of Treloar (1944). We use the form of strain energy for the filament model, that proved to be successful, to bootstrap the strain energy of eight-chain model in order to improve the performance of the latter at low strain. Thus, we derive a new model – bootstrapped eight-chain model – that requires only two material parameters – a rubber modulus and a limiting chain extensibility. The proposed model is quasi-structural due to bootstrapping and it retains the best traits and corrects the faults of the eight-chain model, conforming more closely to the classical experimental data of Treloar (1944).     

A Strain Energy Function for Vulcanized Rubbers

A three-parameter strain energy function is developed to model the nonlinearly elastic response of rubber-like materials. The development of the model is phenomenological, based on data from the classic experiments of Treloar, Rivlin and Saunders, and Jones and Treloar on sheets of vulcanized rubber. A simple two-parameter version, similar to the Mooney-Rivlin and Gent-Thomas strain energies, provides an accurate fit with all of the data from Rivlin and Saunders and Jones and Treloar, as well as with Treloar’s data for deformations for which the principal deformation invariant I ₁ has values in the range 3≤I ₁≤20.     

Strain-energy density function for rubberlike materials

The strain-energy density function surface for the rubber tested by L. R.G. Treloak (1944a) is determined from bis stress-strain data. The data were given for the three pure homogeneous strain paths of simple elongation, pure shear, and equi-biaxial extension of a thin sheet. The surface is formed by plotting calculated points of the strain-energy function above a plane having the first and second strain invariants as rectangular cartesian coordinates. The strain-energy function is expressed as a double power series in the invariants expanded about the zero energy state which is the origin of coordinates. An analysis of this experimentally derived surface provides the information required for the rational selection of terms and the determination of the coefficients in the series expansion, thus defining a function within the Rivlin-type formulation. The function so determined is tested by employing it in the appropriate constitutive formulae to compute stresses for comparison with experimental values. Another test is made by utilizing the function to predict shapes of an inflated membrane for comparison with experimentally observed shapes. Excellent agreement between prediction and experiment is found. A second demonstration is given for another rubber tested by D.F. Jones and L.R.G. Treloar (1975). Again, excellent results are obtained.     

炭黑填充橡胶材料改进Mooney模型

本文讨论了炭黑填充橡胶材料的唯象本构模型。考虑到Mooney模型无法表征橡胶类材料大变形阶段的力学特性,首先利用实验数据,对Mooney模型进行了分析,讨论了炭黑含量与Mooney模型准确表征橡胶材料应变区间大小的关系,Mooney模型对纯剪切和等比双向拉伸等复杂变形的预测能力,同时也分析了材料参数对Mooney模型的影响。最后在Mooney模型的基础上添加了一个修正项,且改进后的Mooney模型满足Treloar和Ogden六项假设。通过与实验数据对比分析,改进Mooney模型可以较好地描述橡胶材料大变形阶段的应力应变关系,同时提高了预测橡胶材料复杂变形的能力。     

Hyperelastic models for rubber-like materials: consistent tangent operators and suitability for Treloar’s data

Rubber-like materials consist of chain-like macromolecules that are more or less closely connected to each other via entanglements or cross-links. As an idealisation, this particular structure can be described as a completely random three-dimensional network. To capture the elastic and nearly incompressible mechanical behaviour of this material class, numerous phenomenological and micro-mechanically motivated models have been proposed in the literature. This contribution reviews fourteen selected representatives of these models, derives analytical stress–stretch relations for certain homogeneous deformation modes and summarises the details required for stress tensors and consistent tangent operators. The latter, although prevalently missing in the literature, are indispensable ingredients in utilising any kind of constitutive model for the numerical solution of boundary value problems by iterative approaches like the Newton–Raphson scheme. Furthermore, performance and validity of the models with regard to the classical experimental data on vulcanised rubber published by Treloar (Trans Faraday Soc 40:59–70, 1944) are evaluated. These data are here considered as a prototype or worst-case scenario of highly nonlinear elastic behaviour, although inelastic characteristics are clearly observable but have been tacitly ignored by many other authors.     

Further study of rubber-like elasticity： elastic potentials matching biaxial data＊

By virtue of the rational interpolation procedure and logarithmic strain, a direct approach is proposed to obtain elastic potentials that exactly match uniaxial data and shear data for elastomers. This approach reduces the determination of multiaxial elastic potentials to that of two one-dimensional potentials, thus bypassing usual cumbersome procedures of identifying a number of unknown parameters. Predictions of the suggested potential are derived for a general biaxial stretch test and compared with the classical data given by Rivlin and Saunders(Rivlin, R. S. and Saunders, D. W. Large elastic deformation of isotropic materials. VII: experiments on the deformation of rubber. Phill. Trans. Royal Soc. London A, 243, 251–288(1951)). Good agreement is achieved with these extensive data.     

General stress-strain relations in non-linear theory of viscoelasticity for large deformations

Conclusion General phenomenoligical stress-strain relations in non-linear theory of visco-elasticity for large deformations have been presented.In the first place, according to V. V. Novozhilov 1 we express the generalized equilibrium equation for large deformations in the Lagrange representation, and we apply the generalized Hamilton's principle to the equation of energy conservation, which denotes that the sum of the elastic energy and the dissipative energy is equal to the work done by the body force and the surface on the substance; so that we obtain the required general stress-strain relations in comparison with the above two equations.On the condition that the elastic potential is a function only of the strain, and the dissipation function is a function of the rate of strain and of strain; such a substance is reduced to the Voigt material necessarily, and the stresses which act on the substance are given by the sum of elastic- and viscous stresses, and the stress-strain relations are reduced to the so-called Lagrangian form.If elongations, shears and angles of rotation are small and also the strains and rates of strain are sufficiently small, the stress-strain relations are expressed by a linear Voigt model constituting a Hookian spring in parallel with a Newtonian dashpot.Non-linearity in the theory is classified into two groups i. e. the geometrical non-linearity and the physical non-linearity. The former is introduced into the theory through the definition of the generalized strain and of the generalized stress and through the equilibrium equation for large deformation, and the latter through the general stress-strain relations.The main result of this paper is that the general stress-strain relations in viscoelasticity are deduced necessarily from the physically appropriate assumptions.     

Torsional instability of stretched rubber cylinders

When cylindrical rubber rods are stretched and twisted to a sufficiently large degree, they suddenly form a sharply bent ring or “knot”, and more knots form as the rod is twisted further. This well-known phenomenon is ascribed here to an elastic instability. As a stretched rod is twisted, the tensile stress required to maintain the stretch drops dramatically in agreement with Rivlin's theory of large elastic deformations (Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. A 241 (1948) 379; Rheology, Theory and Applications, Chapter 10, Vol. 1, Academic Press, New York, 1956). The additional strain energy required to form a ring is shown to become zero at a critical amount of torsion. In experiments on cylindrical rubber rods of various diameters, stretched to various extents, good agreement was obtained between measured values of the amount of torsion at which a ring formed and values predicted by this simple stability analysis, based on Rivlin's theory.     

Three-dimensional Maxwell stress-strain relations in viscoelasticity

Conclusion In this paper three-dimensional Maxwell stress-strain relations were deduced phenomenologically.In the first place we applied the Hamilton's principle to the viscoelastic deformation, and obtained the variational equation with respect to the elastic potential and the dissipation function.Then we assumed that the elastic potential is a function only of the stress, and the dissipation function is a function of stress and rate of stress. By the above variational equation of the virtual stress satisfying the equilibrium equation and the boundary conditions, we obtained the relations to be satisfied by the elastic potential and the dissipation function, and the conditions to be satisfied by the dissipation function.From these relations we obtained the required three-dimensional Maxwell stress-strain relations in viscoelasticity. These relations indicate that the strain is the sum of the internal elastic strain and the internal viscous strain.If a given substance is isotropic with respect to stress, the stress-strain relations are expressed by a linear Maxwell model consisting of Hookian spring in series with a Newtonian dashpot.It is the main result of this paper that the three-dimensional Maxwell stress-strain relations in viscoelasticity are deduced from physically appropriate assumptions.     

An improved Jones-Nelson nonlinear material model and rubber composite lamina analysis

A Jones-Nelson model has been applied to depict nonlinear stress-strain relations of composite laminae, where mechanical properties were expressed by strain energy density. The nonlinear material matrix is only a function of the strain energy density. Then a material model could be conveniently applied under complex stress condition. In this paper, by introducing large displacement stress-strain measurement and varying-Poisson's ratio idea, an improved Jones-Nelson material model is presented, where the expanding problem of material properties and convergence problems are overcome. Meanwhile a discuss of the reorientation of fiber and a material nonlinear analysis of rubber composite lamina under super large deformation conditions are made. The prediction results of improved material model are in fairly good agreement with those of the experiments.     

Non-linear stress-strain equations for incompressible transversely isotropic elastic materials

Non-linear stress-strain equations for incompressible, transversely isotropic elastic materials are developed. In order to obtain these equations, the expressions for a strain energy function is found. The derivation of the strain energy function follows a geometrical approach and a method suggested by Mooney. These stress-strain relations are expressed in terms of three principal stretches to the sixth order.     

On strong ellipticity for isotropic hyperelastic materials based upon logarithmic strain

This paper discusses various constitutive restrictions on the strain energy function for an isotropic hyperelastic material derived from the condition of strong ellipticity. The strain energy function is assumed to be a function of a novel set of invariants of the Hencky (logarithmic or natural) strain tensor introduced by Criscione et al. (J. Mech. Phys. Solids 48 (2000) 2445). A key step in the analysis is the derivation of an expression for the Fréchet derivative of the Hencky strain with respect to the deformation gradient that is convenient for analyzing the quadratic form over the space of second order tensors central to establishing strong ellipticity. The theory is illustrated by applying the restrictions to a model for rubber proposed by Criscione et al. (J. Mech. Phys. Solids 48 (2000) 2445) It is shown that while that model can be made to violate strong ellipticity, it does so only for very large strains.     

Variational principles in elasticity with nonlinear stress-strain relation

Since 1979, a series of papers have been published concerning the variational principles and generalized variational principles in elasticity such as [1] (1979), [6] (1980), [2,3] (1983) and [4,5] (1984). All these papers deal with the elastic body with linear stress-strain relations. In 1985, a book was published on generalized variational principles dealing with some nonlinear elastic body, but never going into detailed discussion. This paper discusses particularly variational principles and generalized variational principles for elastic body with nonlinear stress-strain relations. In these discussions, we find many interesting problems worth while to pay some attention. At the same time, these discussions are also instructive for linear elastic problems. When the strain is small, the high order terms may be neglected, the results of this paper may be simplified to the well-known principles in ordinary elasticity problems.     

Implicit finite element formulations for multi-phase transformation in high carbon steel

An anomalous plastic deformation observed during the phase transformation of steels was implemented into the finite element modeling. The constitutive equations for the transformation plasticity originally proposed by Greenwood and Johnson [Greenwood, G.W., Johnson, R.H., 1965. The deformation of metals under small stresses during phase transformation. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 283, 403] and further extended by Leblond et al. [Leblond, J.B., Mottet, G., Devaux, J.C., 1986a. A theoretical and numerical approach to the plastic behavior of steels during phase transformations, I. Derivation of general relations. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 34, 395–409; Leblond, J.B., Mottet, G., Devaux, J.C., 1986b. A theoretical and numerical approach to the plastic behavior of steels during phase transformations, II. Study of classical plasticity for ideal-plastic phases. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 34, 411–432; Leblond, J.B., Devaux, J., Devaux, J.C., 1989a. Mathematical modeling of transformation plasticity in steels, I: case of ideal-plastic phases. Int. J. Plasticity 5, 511–572; Leblond, J.B., 1989b. Mathematical modeling of transformation plasticity in steels, II: coupling with strain hardening phenomena. Int. J. Plasticity 5, 573–591] were modified to consider the thermo-mechanical response of generalized multi-phase steel during phase transformations from austenite at high temperature. An implicit numerical solution procedure to calculate the plastic deformation of each constituent phase was newly proposed and implemented into the general purpose implicit finite element program via user material subroutine. The new algorithms include efficient calculation of consistent tangent modulus for the transformation plasticity and application of general anisotropic yield functions without limitation to the isotropic yield function. Besides the thermo-elastic–plastic constitutive equations, non-isothermal transformation kinetics was characterized by the Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov (JMAK) equation and additivity relationship for the diffusional transformation, while the model proposed by Koistinen and Marburger was used for the diffusionless transformation. Numerical verifications for the continuous cooling experiments under various loading conditions were conducted to demonstrate the applicability of the developed numerical algorithms to the high carbon steel SK5.     

A variational model for fracture mechanics: Numerical experiments

In the variational model for brittle fracture proposed in Francfort and Marigo [1998. Revisiting brittle fracture as an energy minimization problem. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 46, 1319-1342], the minimum problem is formulated as a free discontinuity problem for the energy functional of a linear elastic body. A family of approximating regularized problems is then defined, each of which can be solved numerically by a finite element procedure. Here we re-formulate the minimum problem within the context of finite elasticity. The main change is the introduction of the dependence of the strain energy density on the determinant of the deformation gradient. This change requires new, more general existence and Γ-convergence results. The results of some two-dimensional numerical simulations are presented, and compared with corresponding simulations made in Bourdin et al. [2000. Numerical experiments in revisited brittle fracture. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 48, 797-826] for the linear elastic model.     

改进的Jones—Nelson物理非线性材料模型与橡胶复合材料层板分析

Ｊｏｎｅｓ－Ｎｅｌｓｏｎ模型是复合材料物理非线性应力应变关系的一种描述方法，它通过建立材料刚度与应变能密度的关系以及考虑纤维增强复合材料的物理非线性问题，非线性的材料矩阵只为应变能的子数，使得材料模型可以方便地应用地复杂应力状态下，通过 在大变形的应变应力变量和变泊松比概念，对Ｊｏｎｅｓ－Ｎｅｌｓｏｎ模型进行了改进，解决了材料特性的扩展问题和收敛问题，同时考虑了大变形中纤维铺设角度的重新取向，使其     

橡胶材料弹性模量数字图像相关测定法

利用数字图像相关方法测量了小应变下柔性橡胶的弹性模量.用CCD相机记录单轴压缩实验中圆柱体橡胶试样表面人工散斑图像,作为数字图像相关测量技术中的变形信息载体.分析了镜头畸变对位移测量的影响,运用数字图像相关法得出小应变范围内像胶的应力应变曲线,计算出橡胶的弹性模量.并与采用千分表所得到的结果进行了比较,两者符合较好.实...     

On approximate large strain relations for a shell of revolution

A series of geometric and constitutive relations is studied for large axisymmetric strain of elastic shells of revolution. The kinematic assumption employs a modified Kirchhoff hypothesis which accounts for thickness changes but neglects transverse shear deformation. Calculations are presented for cylindrical and spherical shells composed of incompressible materials with two types of strain energy density function: Mooney-Rivlin (rubber) and exponential (biological tissue). Comparison of results for large bending at a clamped edge demonstrates the accuracy and limitations of various approximations for stress and strain. The computations indicate that the stress resultants are quite sensitive to the details of the asymmetric motion of points relative to the reference surface.     

Composite and filament models for the mechanical behaviour of elastomeric materials

In this work we present a composite model, which combines the approach of Poisson's function with the filament theory and requires three material parameters. We also suggest the form for a strain-energy function that approximates the constitutive equations of the composite model. Furthermore, a simple asymptotic analysis allows us to reduce the number of material constants to only two, thus, forming a new filament model. The predictive capability of the two models to reproduce the mechanical behaviour of elastomeric materials in deformation experiments is evaluated against the extensive data of Kawabata et al. (Macromolecules 14 (1981) 154). The models give excellent agreement in not only uniaxial and equibiaxial but also non-equibiaxial extension. Although being rather more simplistic in comparison with some successful network models involving non-Gaussian chain statistics, the two models conform much more closely to the classical experimental data of Treloar (Trans. Faraday Soc. 40 (1944) 59).     

A comparison of limited-stretch models of rubber elasticity

In this paper we describe various limited-stretch models of non-linear rubber elasticity, each dependent on only the first invariant of the left Cauchy–Green strain tensor and having only two independent material constants. The models are described as limited-stretch, or restricted elastic, because the strain energy and stress response become infinite at a finite value of the first invariant. These models describe well the limited stretch of the polymer chains of which rubber is composed. We discuss Gent׳s model which is the simplest limited-stretch model and agrees well with experiment. Various statistical models are then described: the one-chain, three-chain, four-chain and Arruda–Boyce eight-chain models, all of which involve the inverse Langevin function. A numerical comparison between the three-chain and eight-chain models is provided. Next, we compare various models which involve approximations to the inverse Langevin function with the exact inverse Langevin function of the eight-chain model. A new approximate model is proposed that is as simple as Cohen׳s original model but significantly more accurate. We show that effectively the eight-chain model may be regarded as a linear combination of the neo-Hookean and Gent models. Treloar׳s model is shown to have about half the percentage error of our new model but it is much more complicated. For completeness a modified Treloar model is introduced but this is only slightly more accurate than Treloar׳s original model. For the deformations of uniaxial tension, biaxial tension, pure shear and simple shear we compare the accuracy of these models, and that of Puso, with the eight-chain model by means of graphs and a table. Our approximations compare extremely well with models frequently used and described in the literature, having the smallest mean percentage error over most of the range of the argument.