High-speed atomic force microscopy with phase-detection

In order to improve the scanning speed of tapping mode AFM, we have studied the phase-detection mode AFM with a high frequency (1.5 MHz) cantilever. The phase shifts versus tip-sample distance with different types of samples including polymer, semiconductor, and graphite were measured and the interaction forces were analyzed. It was found that the phase shift in repulsive region is nearly linear as a function of distance, which can be used for feedback control in general, except that some blunt tips cause reversed polarity of phase shift due to excessive energy dissipation. High-speed image with scan rate of 100 Hz was obtained which were controlled with phase shift as a feedback signal.     

Spatio-temporal imaging of voltage pulses with a laser-gated photoconductive sampling probe

We report on the fabrication process of a scanning force microscopy (SFM) cantilever probe suitable for the investigation of ultrafast transient signals in microwave integrated circuits. High temporal resolution is achieved by integrating a laser-gated photoconductive switch within a coplanar waveguide structure onto a low-temperature GaAs cantilever. This is demonstrated by temporal and spatio-temporal measurements performed on a coplanar strip line. Received: 17 February 1999 / Revised version: 22 April 1999 / Published online: 29 July 1999     

Frequency shifts of cantilever in AFM

The frequency shift and frequency shift image of cantilever in AFM have been studied by numerical integration of the equation of motion of cantilever for silicon tip with rutile TiO₂(0 0 1) surface in UHV conditions and by the Hamaker summation method for the tip-surface interaction forces. The effects of the excitation frequency at the cantilever base and the equilibrium position of the tip on the frequency shift have been calculated and the results showed the same phenomena as those measured, e.g., the frequency shift increased dramatically or rapidly before the contact point and was then almost level off after the contact point. The effects of scanning speed and the initial closest distance of tip to the contact point have been calculated at different excitation frequencies at the cantilever base and the results showed that proper frequency shift image could be obtained either by noncontact mode at the excitation frequency slightly less than the resonance frequency of free cantilever, or by tapping mode at the excitation frequency a few times smaller than the resonance frequency of free cantilever.     

Time-resolved current response of a nanosecond laser pulse illuminated STM tip

Time-resolved dependence of the transient current through a ns laser pulse illuminated scanning tunneling microscope (STM) tip/sample gap in tunneling mode and out of tunneling range is presented. A self-designed fast STM-preamplifier (bandwidth 35 MHz) allows one to resolve the fine structure of the transient signal as well as the observation of some effects that are undetectable by using conventional low-band preamplifiers. The dependence of the threshold laser pulse intensity, which corresponds to the beginning of electron emission from tip (in non-tunneling mode), as a function of the tip/sample distance was investigated. At tip/sample distances from tunnel contact up to approximately 1 μm a linear dependence is found. This behavior is in good agreement with the theory for field enhancement in a STM tip/sample system. In tunneling mode a ns (fast component) as well as a μs (slow component) current response was found as a result of the laser pulse illumination. These data suggest the tip bending to be an important factor in clarifying the thermal/mechanical mechanism of laser-assisted surface nanomodification. Received: 4 May 1998 / Accepted: 29 January 1999 / Published online: 28 April 1999     

Using the dissipation mode in high resolution atomic force microscopy

The possibility of using the dissipation mode in high-resolution atomic force microscopy is demonstrated. By the dissipation mode we mean the dynamic mode in which the cantilever oscillates at a resonance frequency and the oscillation amplitude serves as a signal of the feedback tracing a distance to the surface. The possibility of obtaining molecular resolution when scanning in air is shown. The procedure of choosing the optimum scanning parameters is considered.     

Nanoscale imaging of surface piezoresponse on GaN epitaxial layers

Surfaces of GaN films were investigated by atomic force microscopy (AFM) with implemented piezoelectric force microscopy technique. A model of PFM based on the surface depletion region in GaN films is discussed. The local piezoelectric effect of the low frequency regime was found to be in phase with the applied voltage on large domains, corresponding to a Ga-face of the GaN layer. Low piezoresponse is obtained within the inter-domain regions. The use of frequencies near a resonance frequency enhances very much the resolution of piezo-imaging, but only for very low scanning speed the piezo-imaging can follow the local piezoelectric effect. An inversion of the PFM image contrast is obtained for frequencies higher than the resonance frequencies. The effect of a chemical surface treatment on the topography and the piezoresponse of the GaN films was also investigated. Textured surfaces with very small domains were observed after the chemical treatment. For this kind of surfaces, piezo-induced torsion rather than bending of the AFM cantilever dominates the contrast of the PFM images. A small memory effect was observed, and explained by surface charging and confinement of the piezoelectric effect within the carrier depletion region at the GaN surface.     

Delineation of a p–n junction using dC/dX imagery produced by shear-mode scanning capacitance microscopy

Using a laterally oscillating all-metallic probe, a scanning capacitance microscope (SCM) has been used to yield an image of the spatial derivative of the local capacitance, dC/dX, where C and X are the local capacitance and the axis of the probe tip locus on the sample surface, respectively. Bias fields, except for the ultra-high-frequency fields used for sensing the capacitance, are not necessary to detect the dC/dX signal, which yields an image delineating clearly the depletion region due to the p–n junction. Simultaneously with the dC/dX image, the new SCM can give images of topography and dC/dV if an alternating field V is applied between the probe and sample. Received: 19 March 2001 / Accepted: 22 March 2001 / Published online: 27 June 2001     

Rapid-scanning forward-imaging miniature endoscope for real-time optical coherence tomography

We developed a miniature endoscope that is capable of rapid lateral scanning and is suitable for real-time forward-imaging optical coherence tomography (OCT). The endoscope has an outer diameter of 2.4 mm, consisting of a miniature tubular lead zirconate titanate (PZT) actuator, a single-mode fiber-optic cantilever, and a graded-index lens. Rapid lateral scanning at 2.8 kHz is achieved when the fiber-optic cantilever is resonated with the PZT actuator. This allows OCT imaging to be performed by fast lateral beam scanning followed by slow depth scanning, which is different from the conventional OCT imaging sequence. Real-time OCT imaging with the endoscope operated in the new image acquisition sequence at 6 frames/s is demonstrated.     

Controlling chaos in dynamic-mode atomic force microscope

We successfully demonstrated the first experimental stabilization of irregular and non-periodic cantilever oscillation in the amplitude modulation atomic force microscopy using the time-delayed feedback control. A perturbation to cantilever excitation force stabilized an unstable periodic orbit associated with nonlinear cantilever dynamics. Instead of the typical piezoelectric excitation, the magnetic excitation was used for directly applying control force to the cantilever. The control force also suppressed the cantilever's occasional bouncing motions that caused artifacts on a surface image.     

Quantitative wavelength-modulation spectroscopy without certified gas mixtures

We study the quantification of signal strength in wavelength-modulation spectroscopy, and present algorithms which allow for the quantitative analysis of second-harmonic spectra for arbitrary combinations of line width and modulation depth. The algorithms are validated through measurements on CO lines in the 0 ? 3 overtone band. They can be used for measuring the line strength of lines that are too weak to allow direct absorbance measurements, and for quantifying the response from monitors applying wavelength-modulation under conditions where calibration with certified gases is not feasible. Received: 20 August 1999 / Revised version: 2 September 1999 / Published online: 30 November 1999     

Efficient distributed feedback solid state dye laser with a dynamic grating

We present the first operation of a distributed feedback solid state dye laser with a dynamic, pump-induced grating. Broadly tunable, narrow band operation in the region of 616 nm (604–649 nm) has been demonstrated with perylene red laser dye doped in poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), when pumped with a frequency doubled Nd:YAG laser. Conversion efficiencies of 20%, corresponding to 35% optical-to-optical efficiency, have been measured. The laser bandwidth was between 0.01 and 0.04 nm, and smooth tuning over more than 200 GHz has been demonstrated. Received: 29 March 1999 / Published online: 24 June 1999     

基于线阵CCD的光学测角嵌入式系统设计

CCD作为一种光电转换器件,具有成本低、结构简单、扫描速度快、频率响应高等优点,越来越广泛地运用到测量领域。提出采用单色线阵CCD,以非接触的光学方式对角度信息进行编码调试,通过采集该信号利用数据处理模块,完成对图像信号的解调,实现角度值的测量。系统选用TSL1401和LPC2138为核心构成嵌入式测量系统,利用TSL1401采集信号,通过A/D传输到LPC2138中进行数据处理,最终得到角度值。系统通过光学的方式对角度进行测量,实现了非接触式测量。     

Frequency stabilization of a diode laser on the Cs D2 resonance line by the Zeeman effect in a vapor cell

Hyperfine optical pumping of a Cs-vapor cell through a diode laser in frequency standards requires a high purity of the laser emission spectrum, and a high stability of the emission frequency. We present here a frequency-locking scheme that is able to produce a discrimination signal without any modulation, by using the dichroism induced by a magnetic field on the atomic vapor. The larger line-width of the reference signal (Doppler-broadened) is compensated by its larger amplitude, when compared with the saturated absorption signal. As a final result, the slope is similar, and the large line-width warrants a large locking range, making robust the lock against external perturbations. This error signal is used to lock the frequency of an external cavity diode laser, with a grating reflector in Littman configuration. A fast correction band is obtained by changing the cavity length through an intra-cavity electro-optic modulator. The possible sources of instabilities of the locking point are discussed and estimated through a simulation computer program. Received: 28 November 2000 / Revised version: 21 May 2001 / Published online: 18 July 2001     

内窥式二维光纤扫描探头及其驱动方法

基于压电换能器技术设计了一种应用于光学相干层析成像的新型内窥式二维光纤扫描探头,即利用两片压电陶瓷片和一片薄导电基片驱动光纤探头.该探头利用光纤悬臂的共振特性,通过对压电陶瓷施加等于光纤共振频率的混频信号,能同时激发光纤悬臂两正交方向上的振动,可以实现光纤悬臂的二维扫描.建立了理论模型并进行了有限元仿真分析,最后搭建了实验系统,验证并获得了扫描图样.实验结果实现了光纤悬臂的二维扫描,扫描范围达到(500×500)μm,调节驱动信号振幅幅值可以调节扫描范围.实验结果与理论分析和仿真相吻合,验证了方案的可行性.     

Imaging biological specimens with the confocal scanning laser microscope/macroscope

A new confocal scanning laser microscope/macroscope (cslm/M) has recently been developed. It combines in one instrument the high resolution capability of a confocal scanning beam microscope for imaging small specimens, with good resolution confocal imaging of macroscopic specimens. Some of its main features include: (a) 0.25 μm lateral resolution in the microscope mode and 5 μm lateral resolution in the macroscope mode; (b) a field of view that can vary from 25 μm × 25 μm to 75,000 μm × 75,000 μm; (c) capability for acquiring large data sets from 512 × 512 pixels to 2048 × 2048 pixels; (d) 0.5 μm depth resolution in the microscope mode and 200 μm depth resolution in the macroscope mode.

In this work the cslm/M was used to image whole biological specimens (> 5 m diameter), including insects which are ideal specimens for the macroscope. Specimens require no preparation, unlike scanning electron microscope (SEM) specimens which require a conductive coating. The specimens described in this paper are too large to be imaged in their entirety by a scanning beam laser microscope, however they can be imaged by slower scanning stage microscopes. In the macroscope mode the cslm/M was used to acquire a large number (e.g. 20–40) of confocal image slices which were then used to reconstruct a three-dimensional image of the specimen. High resolution images were collected by the cslm/M by switching to the microscope mode where high numerical aperture (NA) objectives were used to image a small area of interest. Reflected-light and fluorescence images of plant and insect specimens are presented which demonstrate the morphological details obtained in various imaging modes. A process for three-dimensional visualization of the data is described and images are shown.     

一种频域合成房间频率响应的人工混响方法

给出了一种频域合成房间频率响应的方法用于卷积法人工混响,基于频域内房间频率响应的后期部分为高斯随机过程的假设,用自回归滑动平均模型为其自协方差函数和功率谱密度进行参数化描述,在对自回归滑动平均模型中的参数求解后,通过逆滤波得到了房间频率响应后期部分,与房间频率响应前期部分组合后经过傅里叶反变换得到完整的房间脉冲响应。仿真结果表明该方法的混响效果与镜像源法接近,明显优于反馈延迟网络法,但其计算复杂度比镜像源法低,便于实时应用。     

THz coherent emission from quantized metallic films under ultrafast IR excitation

2 laser is studied theoretically. The consideration is based on the second-order perturbation for the density matrix under the collisionless regime. The numerical results for the response in the THz spectral region as a function of the pump frequency and the pulse duration demonstrate the possibility of efficient excitation of the THz emission from the quantized metallic films. Received: 20 September 1998 / Revised version: 27 January 1999     

Dynamics of gold cluster systems

x surface of Si(111) wafers was studied as a function of annealing time at relatively low annealing temperatures (50 and 100 °C) by application of scanning force microscopy. A fast increase in cluster diameter and height as a function of annealing time was detected. After more than 3 h of annealing depletion zones and nucleation exclusion zones were observed. Received: 13 August 1998 / Published online: 10 February 1999     

虚拟式声显微镜及应用技术研究

本文描述一台虚拟式扫描声显微镜及应用技术研究，它的硬件特别简单，仅由一台带有超高速A/D卡和快脉冲收发卡的PC机和机械扫描系统组成，主要的功能均由软件完成，脉冲收发卡仅包括脉冲产生和高频放大器，A/D卡采用PCI总线，采样率1GSPS，数据传输率100MB/s，系统能采集并实时显示频率达百兆的未检波回波信号，采修订本以的信号经软件处理，可在屏幕上实时显示样品的A、B、C型幅度像或相位像，仪器利用信号处理技术提高信号的信噪比；进行特征提取，识别，该仪器在材料识别，电子、光电子器件和焊接质量检测等方面功能较强，具有广阔的开发应用前景。     

基于PC机的一种多功能声显微镜及可视化技术的研究

近来研制成功了一种基于ＰＣ机、我们称为“ＴＨＳＡＭＭ”型的多功能声显微镜。在ＰＣ机内插入采样率１ＧＳＰＳ的超高速Ａ／Ｄ卡和信号产生和接收卡,利用软件完成信号检测、处理、显示功能。仪器工作频率为１－１００ＭＨｚ;在检测样品时,同时多层显示Ａ、Ｂ、Ｃ扫描结果。根据声学理论、Ｍａｒｃｈｉｎｇ Ｃｕｂｅ等值面抽取方法和ＯｐｅｎＧＬ技术完成了三维数据的可视化处理,显示样品的内部三维结构。该系统已成功应用于多