A comparison of redox processes for polypyrrole/dodecylsulfate films in aqueous and non-aqueous media

Polypyrrole/dodecylsulfate (PPy/DDS) films were synthesized in aqueous and ethanolic solutions and investigated in aqueous, ethanolic, methanolic and acetonitrile solutions by cyclic voltammetry (CV). The amounts of anions and cations in the films before and after electrochemical treatment were determined by electron probe microanalysis (EPMA); the film morphology was studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results prove that the mobility of bulky DDS^– ions in PPy increases in the order: water<acetonitrile<ethanol<methanol. It was found that dopant DDS^– ions can be easily removed from PPy matrix swollen in alcohols or acetonitrile by electrochemical reduction or by soaking in electrolyte solutions of these solvents. The influence of electrochemical treatment on the change of doping level in aqueous solution is essentially less and depends on the cations in the test solution. Although the electroneutrality of PPy/DDS films during redox cycling is realized mainly by movement of the cations in aqueous solution and by movement of the anions in organic solvents, nevertheless the participation of anions in aqueous and cations in organic solvents is also established. The redox properties of PPy/DDS are more dependent on the solvent of the test solutions than of the synthesis solutions. Electronic Publication     

Fast migration of fluoride ions in growing anodic titanium oxide

The rapid inward migration of fluoride ions in growing anodic titanium oxide under a high electric field has been elucidated by anodizing a Ti–12 at% silicon alloy, where film growth proceeds at nearly 100% efficiency in selected electrolytes. Further, incorporated silicon species in the anodic film are immobile, acting as marker species. The migration rate of fluoride ions is determined precisely by three-stage anodizing, consisting of initial anodic film formation at a constant current density to 50 V in ammonium pentaborate electrolyte, subsequent incorporation of fluoride ions by reanodizing to 55 V in ammonium fluoride electrolyte and, finally, anodizing again in ammonium pentaborate electrolyte at high current efficiency. The resultant films were analyzed by glow discharge optical emission spectroscopy to reveal the depth distribution of fluoride ions and the location of the silicon marker species. The fluoride ions migrate inward at twice the rate of O²⁻ ions. Consequently, anodizing of titanium in fluoride-containing electrolytes develops a fluoride-rich layer that separates the alloy substrate from the anodic oxide, with eventual detachment of the film from the substrate.     

Synthesis,characterization and batch assessment of groundwater fluoride removal capacity of trimetal Mg/Ce/Mn oxide-modified diatomaceous earth

In this study, trimetal Mg/Ce/Mn oxide-modified diatomaceous earth (DE) was synthesized at optimal conditions. Comparison of the SEM images and the results of EDX analyses of the raw and the modified DE confirmed the surface modification of the raw DE with the trimetal oxide. Groundwater fluoride removal capacity of the sorbent was evaluated by batch method at various defluoridation conditions. At a sorbent dosage of 0.6 g/100 mL (contact time: 60 min, mixing speed of 200 rpm and temperature: 297 K), the fluoride removal was >93% for solutions containing initial fluoride concentration of 10–60 mg/L. Sorbent’s optimum fluoride uptake capacity was 12.63 mg/g at the initial fluoride concentration of 100 mg/L. Fluoride removal was >91% for solutions with initial pH range of ∼4–11 (initial fluoride concentration: 9 mg/L, sorbent dosage: 0.6 g/100 mL). Appraisal of the effect of co-existing anions on fluoride removal showed that CO₃²⁻ would reduce the amount of fluoride removed from solution, while other anions such as PO₄³⁻, NO₃⁻ and SO₄²⁻ had no observable effect. K₂SO₄ solution was found to be most suitable for regeneration of spent Mg/Ce/Mn oxide-modified DE compared to Na₂CO₃ and NaOH. The mechanism of fluoride removal at pH > 5.45 (pHpzc = 5.45) occurred by exchange of hydroxyl groups on surface of sorbent with fluoride ions from solution. Sorption data fitted better to Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-second-order model. External diffusion was observed to be the sorption rate limiting factor.     

On-Surface Metathesis of an Ionic Liquid on Ag(111)

We investigated the adsorption, surface enrichment, ion exchange, and on-surface metathesis of ultrathin mixed IL films on Ag(111). We stepwise deposited 0.5 ML of the protic IL diethylmethylammonium trifluoromethanesulfonate ([dema][TfO]) and 1.0 ML of the aprotic IL 1-methyl-3-octylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate ([C₈C₁Im][PF₆]) at around 90 K. Thereafter, the resulting layered frozen film was heated to 550 K, and the thermally induced phenomena were monitored in situ by angle-resolved X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Between 135 and 200 K, [TfO]⁻ anions at the Ag(111) surface are exchanged by [PF₆]⁻ anions and enriched together with [C₈C₁Im]⁺ cations at the IL/vacuum interface. Upon further heating, [dema][PF₆] and [OMIm][PF₆] desorb selectively at ∼235 and ∼380 K, respectively. Hereby, a wetting layer of pure [C₈C₁Im][TfO] is formed by on-surface metathesis at the IL/metal interface, which completely desorbs at ∼480 K. For comparison, ion enrichment at the vacuum/IL interface was also studied in macroscopic IL mixtures, where no influence of the solid support is expected.     

Study of the Properties of Electrodeposited Polypyrrole Films

Experimental and theoretical methods have been used for characterization of the properties of polypyrrole films. The AFM studies show that the morphology of polypyrrole (PPy) films on polycrystalline gold electrodes at the first stages of synthesis depends on the structure of the metal surface. It was established that mobility of anions depends remarkably on the rate of electrodeposition of the polymer film. If PPy film was deposited at relatively low current density, mobility of ClO^- ₄ anion was not high enough to guarantee electroneutrality during redox cycling and cations take part in this process especially when Li⁺ cations were replaced by more mobile ⁺ cations. Semiempirical (AM1 and PM3) quantum-chemical methods were used for theoretical studies. It was established that different size and charge of the anions together with the variation in doping levels give rise to a different optimal conformation of oligopyrrole cations which, in turn, define the resulting polymer to be either all-anti (common linear chains) or all-syn (formation of helical structures) or a combination of the two.     

Electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance study for vanadium hexacyanoferrates: monitoring of film growth and ion effects during redox reactions

An electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance was employed to monitor directly the growth of vanadium hexacyanoferrate (VHF) films on platinum substrates during electrodeposition and interfacial coagulation in the solution containing sulfuric acid electrolyte, vanadium(IV) and hexacyanoferrate(III). Mass changes of the gold/crystal working electrode were correlated with cyclic voltammetry data. Effects of cations (NH₄⁺, Li⁺, Na⁺ and K⁺), anions (SO₄²⁻ and NO₃⁻) and solvent during redox reactions of the films were studied. The results show that cations were incorporated into the film during reduction and expelled from the film during oxidation. Solvent also participates in VHF electrochemistry, and its role cannot be neglected. Anions play no role in VHF electrochemistry.     

Sequential Determination of Inorganic Cations and Anions in Cerebrospinal Fluid by Microchip Electrophoresis

Analysis of inorganic ions in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is used mainly in the diagnostics of central nervous system diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease or multiple sclerosis. A new analytical method for fast determination of inorganic cations (ammonium, calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium) and anions (chloride, sulfate, nitrite and nitrate) in CSF on an electrophoretic microchip was developed in this context. Zone electrophoresis (ZE) separations were performed on the microchip with coupled channels (CC) and contact conductivity detection. Two different propionate background electrolytes were used for the sequential determination of cations at pH 3.1 and anions at pH 4.3. ZE was used for the determination of cationic constituents while ZE–ZE approach was employed for the determination of chloride in the first separation channel on the CC microchip and other anionic micro-constituents in the second channel. LOD values were in the range of 0.003–0.012 mg L⁻¹ and 0.019–0.047 mg L⁻¹ for cations and anions, respectively. Repeatability of migration time was up to 1.2 % for both cations and anions. Repeatability of peak area ranged from 0.3 to 5.6 % for cations and from 0.6 to 6.0 % for anions. Recovery of both cations and anions was in the range 90–106 %. CSF samples were only diluted appropriately without other sample pretreatment prior to analysis. Developed sequential method is suitable for fast determination of the studied cations and anions in CSF with total analysis time <15 min.

     

Concurrent determination and separation of inorganic cations and anions in microchip electrophoresis with precisely controlled high‐voltage

An improved method for the concurrent determination and separation of cations and anions by microchip electrophoresis with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection (ME‐C⁴D) is described. Two kinds of microchip structures were designed. The first microchip has a long bent separation channel. And for the defects of the first microchip, the second microchip with a Y‐type separation channel has been proposed. The background electrolyte (BGE) composed of 20 mm His/MES and 0.01 mm CTAB was optimized for inhibiting the electroosmotic flow (EOF). Due to the low electroosmotic flow, the cations and anions migrate in opposite directions and can be separated from each other. With the precisely controlled high‐voltage, cations and anions can be migrated in microchannels according to our requirements and sequentially detected by a C⁴D detector built in‐house. Samples containing K⁺, Na⁺, Li⁺, Cl⁻, F⁻ and PO₄³⁻ were analyzed simultaneously in a single run (within 140 s) by both methods. The reproducibility obtained by both methods remained below 5% for migration time and within 3.5–9.1% for peak areas. The proposed concurrent determination methods are inexpensive, simple, fast, ease of operation, high degree of integration.     

Low-voltage thin-layer electrophoresis of inorganic anions on silica gel-G and titanium (IV) tungstate layers: separation of coexisting F−, Cl−, Br− and I−, I−, IO3− and IO4−, Fe(CN)64− and Fe(CN)63−

The electrophoretic behavior of twenty anions has been studied on silica gel-G, titanium (IV) tungstate and silica gel-G- titanium (IV) tungstate admixture layers using 0.1 M solutions of oxalic acid, citric acid, tartaric acid, succinic acid and acetic acid as background electrolyte. The mechanism of migration is explained in terms of adsorption and the solubility of various sodium or potassium salts of the anions in water. Titanium (IV) tungstate behaves only as an adsorbent and not as an ion exchanger. Being a cation exchanger, there is no exchange phenomenon occurring with anions. The migration of halides increase linearly with an increase in the bare ion radii of these ions. Differential migration of the anions on silica gel-G layers led to binary, ternary and quaternary separations of similar anions such as F⁻ – Cl⁻ – Br⁻ – I⁻, I⁻ – IO₃⁻ – IO₄⁻, BrO₃⁻ – IO₃⁻ and Fe(CN)₆³⁻ – Fe(CN)₆⁴⁻. The two cyanoferrate ions are separated from industrial waste water and from fixer and bleach solutions. The migration of anions has also been found to be in accordance with their lyotropic numbers.

     

Combined electrochemical and radiotracer study of anion sorption from aqueous solutions into polypyrrole films

The sorption of SO²⁻₄ and Cl⁻ ions into polypyrrole films has been studied by the radiotracer method under potential cycling and steady state conditions using labelled H₂SO₄ and HCl. Although a potential dependent migration and penetration of anions in the film can be detected, no strong correlation was found between the amount of charge consumed in the oxidation and reduction processes and the number of sorbed anions. The number of positively charged sites attracting anions into the film seems to be significantly lower than that expected from the amount of charge involved in the electrochemical transformations.     

On the break-in and passivation phenomena in polypyrrole/sulfate films

The influence of different divalent cations (M²⁺) on the electrochemical charging/discharging process of polypyrrole/sulfate (PPy/SO₄) films has been investigated. In principle, two different types of M²⁺ were found: (a) cations that cause the break-in phenomenon in the PPy film during electrochemical cycling with a gradual increase of film electroactivity and (b) cations in whose solutions the PPy film remains mainly electroinactive. Certain correlations have been drawn between several physico-chemical properties of the investigated cations and the break-in and passivation phenomena. The break-in and passivation phenomena were found to be influenced by the size and deformability of the cation hydration shell, ion covalent index and softness, as well as by the pH value of the test solution.     

AP-GOD Biosensor Based on a Modified Poly(PHENOL) Film Electrode and Its Application in the Determination of Low Levels of Phosphate

Abstract

The features of a biosensor based on a platinum electrode modified with a poly(phenol) film coupled with two enzymes, alkaline phosphatase(AP) and glucose oxidase(GOD), were studied. The modification of the surface of the working electrode decreases interference from ascorbic acid, uric acid and some oxidizable organic materials (e.g. glycine), and decreases the noise of the current. The concentration of substrate, the activity ratio of the two enzymes, the applied potential, and the assembling of biosensor are important for the determination of low levels of phosphate.

The two enzymes have been immobilized on an Immobilon^(R) membrane. The linearity range appears in two sections with different sensitivity: one from 8-110 μmol I^?1 and another one from 0.1-1.0 mmol I^?1, with 1.2 μA/mmol/cm² and 0.4 μA/mmol/cm², respectively. Except for some heavy metal ions, ascorbic acid and some oxidizable organic materials, common anions and cations don't interfere with the determination of phosphate.

The biosensor has been used to determine phosphate in some synthetic and real samples with a detection limit of 4 μmol I^?1 of phosphate. The results were compared with a standard spectrophotometric method. The accuracy and recovery of phosphate with the biosensor procedure are ±2% and 96 to 103%, respectively.

     

Mass-spectrometric investigation of the anions and cations in a hydrocarbon flame doped with sulphur/fluorine additives

A fuel-lean, premixed, CH₄O₂ flame at atmospheric pressure was doped with 0.2 mol% of SF₆ and 0.1 mol% of triflic anhydride (CF₃SO₂)₂O. Primarily the anions, but also the cations, occurring in the flame reaction zone and in the burnt-gas region downstream were observed by sampling the flame through a nozzle into a mass spectrometer. The main objective was to ascertain the ability of these sulphur/fluorine (S/F) additives and their combustion products to scavenge free electrons by forming negative ions in the flame gas. With either additive present, both total anions and cations increased in the reaction zone by a factor of between three and four. In the burnt gas, the total cations were essentially unchanged but the total anions showed a three-fold increase. With SF₆ additive only, major S/F cations were observed in the reaction zone (e.g.; SF⁺₃, SF₃O⁺, SF⁺₃, etc.) although H₃O⁺ with both additives was completely dominant downstream. Both additives produced major S/F anion signals in the flame reaction zone. Some of these were related to the individual additive structure (e.g. SF⁻₅ with SF₆; CF₃SO⁻₃ with (CF₃SO₂)₂O). Others were essentially unrelated but were observed with both additives (e.g. FSO⁻₃, HSO⁻₄, etc.) and persisted throughout the burnt gas. Some important features of the ion chemistry are discussed.     

Formability and properties of self-standing clay film by montmorillonite with different interlayer cations

Influences of exchangeable interlayer cations were investigated on self-standing film formability, film morphology, and properties of the clay films such as flexibility and gas barrier property. Ion-exchanged montmorillonite samples were prepared by a cation exchange from naturally bearing cation, mostly Na⁺, to Li⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Al³⁺, and Fe^{2+, 3+}. Self-standing films were prepared from aqueous colloidal dispersions of these montmorillonite samples with no additives. The montmorillonite samples with monovalent or divalent cation formed flat self-standing films while the Al-montmorillonite sample produced a distorted film. The Fe-montmorillonite sample formed many separated reddish-brown rod-shaped pieces. Clay film microstructures were different with interlayer cations. The films with monovalent interlayer cations were constructed by the stacking of units with delicately waved thin clay sheets in the whole film, but other films show different morphologies between the upper side and lower side; the upper side is laminated with thin sheets; the lower side is laminated with large thick sheets.The self-standing films’ flexibility and gas barrier property differed according to the interlayer cations. These properties were good in cases of samples with monovalent cations. The innumerable short wave and sheet thinness are considered to foster good flexibility and gas barrier properties. The differences in film formability and properties of the films are attributable to different swellability among samples with different interlayer cations. The montmorillonite samples with monovalent cations swell sufficiently by water, but those with polyvalent cations swell poorly. In the latter case, clay crystals aggregate in water, then the aggregate grows into large particles, creating a film with large particles.     

Physical Vapor Deposition of [EMIM][Tf2N]: A New Approach to the Modification of Surface Properties with Ultrathin Ionic Liquid Films

Ultrathin films of the ionic liquid (IL) 1‐ethyl‐3‐methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, [EMIM][Tf₂N], are prepared on a glass substrate by means of an in situ thermal‐evaporation/condensation process under ultrahigh‐vacuum conditions. By using X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), it is demonstrated that the first layer of the IL film grows two dimensionally, followed by the three‐dimensional growth of successive layers. The first molecular layer consists of a bilayer, with the [EMIM]⁺ cations in contact to the surface and the [Tf₂N]^? anions at the vacuum side. The ultrathin IL films are found to be stable under ambient conditions.     

Femtosecond photoexcitation dynamics in polydiacetylene 4BCMU film

Femtosecond pulses were used to study photoexcitation dynamics in polydiacetylene 4BCMU film. Ultrafast photoinduced dichroism and optical Kerr gate responses were observed. These measurements allowed estimation of the diffusion constant (D ∼ 0.1 cm²/s), the nonlinear index of refraction (n₂ ∼ 10⁻⁸ esu), and third-order susceptibility (δχ⁽³⁾ ∼ 6 × 10⁻¹⁰ esu), in the film. We also found that the sign of the photoinduced transmission signal was dependent on the pump energy at the low energy absorption edge of the film. Possible explanations are proposed.     

Effects of different matrixes on the dosimetric response of α-terthiophene films from the kGy to MGy range

Films of polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and polystyrene (PS) containing α-terthiophene (3T) undergo a radiochromic effect when exposed to electrons and gamma rays. The films turn either red–green or red, due to the formation of oligomeric radical cations. In both matrixes, absorbance at 465 nm grows linearly with dose when α-terthiophene concentration reaches 12%. Explored range goes up to ∼2×10⁶ Gy, with dose rates spanning over three orders of magnitude. Concerning their application as dosimeters, a higher sensitivity characterises the 3T–PMMA moiety, suggesting its suitability from the kGy range up to 1 MGy. Above this value films become fragile. 3T–PS films are less sensitive, but more radiation resistant. Therefore they better suit the medium-to-high dose dosimetry range. Dose rate influences the response sensitivity in a complex way, however above 80 and up to 3.6×10⁴ Gy/min an approximate linearity exists between log(dose rate) and sensitivity, as in the analogous cellulose triacetate system.     

Toward Cost‐Effective Manufacturing of Silicon Solar Cells: Electrodeposition of High‐Quality Si Films in a CaCl2‐based Molten Salt

Electrodeposition of Si films from a Si‐containing electrolyte is a cost‐effective approach for the manufacturing of solar cells. Proposals relying on fluoride‐based molten salts have suffered from low product quality due to difficulties in impurity control. Here we demonstrate the successful electrodeposition of high‐quality Si films from a CaCl₂‐based molten salt. Soluble Si^IV−O anions generated from solid SiO₂ are electrodeposited onto a graphite substrate to form a dense film of crystalline Si. Impurities in the deposited Si film are controlled at low concentrations (both B and P are less than 1 ppm). In the photoelectrochemical measurements, the film shows p‐type semiconductor character and large photocurrent. A p–n junction fabricated from the deposited Si film exhibits clear photovoltaic effects. This study represents the first step to the ultimate goal of developing a cost‐effective manufacturing process for Si solar cells based on electrodeposition.     

Hydroxylammonium fluorometalate: synthesis and characterisation of a new fluorozincate

Abstract  

A new coordination compound of zinc fluoride and hydroxylammonium, (NH₃OH)₂ZnF₄, was obtained after dissolving zinc powder in hydrofluoric acid (40%) and adding solid hydroxylammonium fluoride. The colourless crystals were characterised chemically, magnetically, structurally by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis, and thermogravimetrically by TGA and DSC analysis. The structure consists of NH₃OH⁺ cations and ZnF₆ octahedra in which the metal ion lies on the inversion centre. Each of the ZnF₆ octahedra shares four of its vertices in a way that each vertex is shared between two octahedra. Oxygen and nitrogen atoms of hydroxylammonium cations are donors of hydrogen bonds. Hydroxylamonium fluorozincate crystallizes monoclinic, P21/c, with cell parameters a = 8.1604(4) ?, b = 5.8406(3) ?, c = 5.6586(2) ? and β = 94.745(3)°. The compound decomposes above 373 K in four steps, obtaining ZnO as the final residue. Magnetic properties of the compound were studied between 2 and 300 K, giving the prevailing diamagnetic behaviour with room temperature susceptibility of −9 × 10⁻⁵ emu mol⁻¹.     

Simultaneous Determination of Inorganic Cations and Anion in Medical Electrolytes by Capillary Electrophoresis

Abstract

Capillary electrophoresis (CE) was developed in order to effect rapid, specific determination of potassium, calcium, sodium, and magnesium. Ions (4 cations, 1 anion) were measured continuously via shifting of samples from the inlet electrode to the outlet electrode; moreover, samples were subjected to indirect and direct ultraviolet (UV) techniques, respectively. For the measurement of cations, imidazole (5 mM) functioned as a UV absorber of indirect detection at 214 nm. Consequently, anions can be measured directly by UV at 214 nm. Separation times of cations and Cl^? anions were 10 min and 2 min, respectively; the detection limit of each ion (chloride, magnesium, sodium, calcium, and potassium) was 0.1 µmol/L. This approach is very simple; additionally, measurement time is extremely short. As a result, the proposed method is suitable for routine assay of electrolytes in pharmaceutical preparations.