Effect of gamma irradiation on the antimicrobial and free radical scavenging activities of Glycyrrhiza glabra root

The efficacy of gamma irradiation as a method of decontamination for food and herbal materials is well established. In the present study, Glycyrrhiza glabra roots were irradiated at doses 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 kGy in a cobalt-60 irradiator. The irradiated and un-irradiated control samples were evaluated for phenolic contents, antimicrobial activities and DPPH scavenging properties. The result of the present study showed that radiation treatment up to 20 kGy does not affect the antifungal and antibacterial activity of the plant. While sample irradiated at 25 kGy does showed changes in the antibacterial activity against some selected pathogens. No significant differences in the phenolic contents were observed for control and samples irradiated at 5, 10 and 15 kGy radiation doses. However, phenolic contents increased in samples treated with 20 and 25 kGy doses. The DPPH scavenging activity significantly (p<0.05) increased in all irradiated samples of the plant.     

Effect of gamma irradiation on microbial load,physicochemical and sensory characteristics of soybeans (Glycine max L. Merrill)

Gamma irradiation is highly effective in inactivating microorganisms in various foods and offers a safe alternative method of food decontamination. In the present study, soybeans (Glycine max L. Merrill) were treated with 0, 1.0, 3.0, 5.0 and 10.0 KGy of gamma irradiation. Microbial populations on soybeans, isoflavone, tocopherol contents, raffinose family oligosaccharides, color and sensory properties were evaluated as a function of irradiation dose. The results indicated that gamma irradiation reduced aerobic bacterial and fungal load. Irradiation at the doses applied did not cause any significant change (p>0.05) in the contents of isoflavone of soybeans, but decreased tocopherol contents. The content of key flatulence-producing raffinose family oligosaccharides in irradiated soybeans (10.0 kGy) decreased by 82.1% compared to the control. Sensory analysis showed that the odor of the soybeans was organoleptically acceptable at doses up to 5.0 kGy and no significant differences were observed between irradiated and nonirradiated samples in flavor, texture and color after irradiation.     

Microbial quality evaluation and effective decontamination of nutraceutically valued lotus seeds by electron beams and gamma irradiation

Lotus seeds are nutraceutically valued natural plant produce, which succumbs to microbial contamination, predominantly to toxigenic moulds. Results of the present study revealed seed coat portion to harbor higher proportion of microbial load, particularly fungi than cotyledon portion. Among the mycotoxins analyzed, aflatoxins (B₁, B₂, G₁ and G₂) were below detectable limits, while the seeds were devoid of Ochratoxin-A (OTA). Application of different doses of electron beam and gamma irradiation (0, 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15 and 30 kGy) for decontamination purpose revealed significant dose-dependent decrease in the fungal contaminants (P<0.05). However, the contaminant yeasts could survive up to 10 kGy dose, which could be completely eliminated at 15 kGy. From the results obtained, a dose range between 10 and 15 kGy is recommended for complete decontamination, as these doses have also been shown earlier to have minimal effects on nutritional and functional properties of lotus seeds.     

Gamma radiation induced effects on slaughterhouse wastewater treatment

A preliminary study using gamma radiation on slaughterhouse wastewater samples was carried out. Chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and total suspended solids (TSS) results were obtained at a dose rate of 0.9 kGy h⁻¹. A decrease of COD, BOD and colour was observed after irradiation at high absorbed doses. The microbiological results, following irradiation in the same conditions, correlated with the BOD results. The results obtained highlight the potential of this technology for wastewater treatment.     

Evaluation of γ-radiation on oolong tea odor volatiles

The aim of this study was to evaluate the gamma radiation effects on odor volatiles in oolong tea at doses of 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 kGy. The volatile organic compounds were extracted by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC/MS. The irradiation has a large influence on oolong tea odor profile, once it was identified 40% of new compounds after this process, the 5 kGy and 20 kGy were the doses that degraded more volatiles found naturally in this kind of tea and the dose of 10 kGy was the dose that formed more new compounds. Statistical difference was found between the 5 kGy and 15 kGy volatile profiles, however the sensorial analysis showed that the irradiation at dose up 20 kGy did not interfere on consumer perception.     

Effect of gamma irradiation on microbial decontamination,and chemical and sensory characteristic of lycium fruit

Lycium fruit, popular traditional Chinese medicine and food supplement generally is ingested uncooked, was exposed to several doses of gamma irradiation (0–14 kGy) to evaluate decontamination efficiency, changes in chemical composition, and changes in sensory characteristic. In this study, lycium fruit specimens contained microbial counts of 3.1×10³–1.7×10⁵ CFU/g and 14 kGy was sufficient for microbial decontamination. Before irradiation, the main microbe isolated from lycium fruit was identified as a strain of yeast, Cryptococcus laurentii. After 10 kGy of irradiation, a Gram-positive spore-forming bacterium, Bacillus cereus, was the only survivor. The first 90% reduction (LD₉₀) of C. laurentii and B. cereus was approximately 0.6 and 6.5 kGy, respectively, the D₁₀ doses of C. laurentii and B. cereus was approximately 0.6 and 1.7 kGy, respectively. After 14 kGy irradiation, except the vitamin C content, other chemical composition (e.g., crude protein, β-carotene, riboflavin, fructose, etc.) and the sensory characteristic of lycium fruit specimens did not have significant changes. In conclusion, 14 kGy is the optimal decontamination dose for lycium fruit for retention of its sensory quality and extension of shelf life.     

Establishing the irradiation dose for paper decontamination

Museums, libraries and archives are preserving documents that are slowly degrading due to the inherent ageing of the cellulose substrate or to the technological errors of the past (acid paper, iron gall ink). Beside this, large quantities of paper are rapidly damaged by biological attacks following natural disasters and improper storage conditions.The treatment of paper documents with ionizing radiation can be used for mass decontamination of cultural heritage items but conservators and restaurators are still reserved because of the radiation induced degradation.We conducted a study for establishing the dose needed for the effective treatment of paper documents, taking into account the biological burden and the irradiation effects on paper structure. We used physical testing specific to paper industry and less destructive analytical methods (thermal analysis).Our results show that an effective treatment can be performed with doses lower than 10 kGy. Old paper appears to be less affected by gamma radiation than recent paper but the sampling is highly affected by the non-uniform degree of the initial degradation status. The extent of testing for degradation and the magnitude of acceptable degradation should take into account the biological threat and the expected life time of the paper documents.     

Response of oriental fruit moth,Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), eggs to gamma radiation

As insects increase in radiotolerance as they develop and usually several developmental stages of the pest may be present in the fresh shipped commodity, it is important to know the radiation susceptibility of the stages of the target insect before the establishment of ionizing radiation quarantine treatments. This study was performed to determine the radiotolerance of eggs of the oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), to gamma radiation. This species is considered as one of the most serious worldwide pests for temperate fruits, especially peaches. Eggs (12 h old) were exposed to 0 (control), 25, 35, 50, 75, 100, 125 and 150 Gy of gamma radiation. Surviving larvae were allowed to feed on an artificial diet. Three days after irradiation, it was verified that larvae’s cephalic capsules were significantly affected by gamma radiation, and the estimated mean LD₉₀ and LD₉₉ were 66.3 Gy and 125.8 Gy, respectively. Oriental fruit moth eggs revealed to be quite radiosensitive and very low doses as 50 Gy were sufficient to disrupt G. molesta embryogenesis. At 25 Gy, only male adults originated from the surviving larvae and, after mating with untreated fertile females, shown to be sterile.     

Effect of gamma radiation on the physico-chemical properties of alginate-based films and beads

Alginate solution (3%, w/v) was prepared using deionized water from its powder. Then the solution was exposed to gamma radiation (0.1?25 kGy). The alginate films were prepared by solution casting. It was found that gamma radiation has strong effect on alginate solution. At low doses, mechanical strength of the alginate films improved but after 5 kGy dose, the strength started to decrease. The mechanism of alginate radiolysis in aqueous solution is discussed. Film formation was not possible from alginate solution at doses >5 kGy. The mechanical properties such as puncture strength (PS), puncture deformation (PD), viscoelasticity (Y) coefficient of the un-irradiated films were investigated. The values of PS, PD and Y coefficient of the films were 333 N/mm, 3.20 mm and 27%, respectively. Alginate beads were prepared from 3% alginate solution (w/v) by ionotropic gelation method in 5% CaCl₂ solution. The rate of gel swelling improved in irradiated alginate-based beads at low doses (up to 0.5 kGy).     

Radiation-induced degradation of butyl rubber vulcanized by three different crosslinking systems

Butyl rubber (IIR) is an isobutylene/isoprene copolymer and is provided with good properties including low permeability to gases, good thermal stability and high resistance to oxygen and ozone action, among others. It is well known that the major effect of ionizing radiations on butyl rubber is chain scission accompanied with a significant reduction in molar mass. This work aimed to study the effects of gamma radiation on the properties of butyl rubbers vulcanized by three different curing systems, such as, the ones based on sulfur, sulfur donor and phenolic resin to identify which curing system is the most stable under irradiation. The butyl rubber vulcanized by three different systems was gamma irradiated with doses of 25 kGy, 50 kGy, 100 kGy, 150 kGy and 200 kGy. Irradiated and non-irradiated samples were characterized by the following techniques: tensile, elongation and hardness. It was observed that doses higher than 150 kGy practically destroy the assessed properties for all butyl compounds, irrespective of the vulcanization system used; however compounds cured with phenolic resin showed a decrease in properties proportional to the dose.     

Radiation decontamination of poultry viscera

Application of gamma radiation for decontamination of poultry viscera was examined. Exposure to a dose of 20 kGy rendered the viscera sterile (<1 CFU/10 g tissue), while 5 and 10 kGy reduced the total bacterial count by 4 and 6 log₁₀ cycles, respectively, eliminating the coliforms to <1 CFU/g of tissue. Analysis of organoleptic and biochemical parameters [proximate composition, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVBN), lipid peroxidation (TBARS value), and levels of TCA soluble peptides and proteolytic enzyme] showed that gamma irradiation (20 kGy) followed by storage at 4 °C for 62 days induced no significant change (except lipid peroxidation) in the acceptability of poultry viscera. However, storage at ambient temperature (26 °C) produced enhanced levels of TVBN and TCA soluble products accompanied by higher drip loss. Activities of proteolytic enzymes, except acid protease, did not show any significant change during post-irradiation storage at either temperature.     

Effects of gamma irradiation on the grape vine moth,Lobesia botrana,eggs

Eggs of the grape vine moth, Lobesia botrana (Denis and Schiffermuller), ranging in age from 1–24 to 73–96 h, were exposed, at 24 h intervals, to gamma radiation ranging from 25–600 Gy. The effects of gamma radiation on egg hatch, pupation, adult emergence, sex ratio and rate of development were examined. Results showed that the radiosensitivity of the grape vine moth eggs decreased with increasing age and increased with increasing radiation dose. Egg hatch in 1–24 h old eggs was significantly affected at 25 Gy and completely prevented at 100 Gy. At the age of 25–48 h, radiation sensitivity was only a little lower; egg hatch at 100 Gy was <1% and at 125 Gy no egg hatch was observed. Egg sensitivity to gamma irradiation decreased significantly in the 49–72 h age group; egg hatch was 66% at 100 Gy, and 500 Gy did not completely stop egg hatch (<1%). Eggs irradiated a few hours before egg hatch (73–96 h old) were the most resistant; 150 Gy had no significant effect on egg hatch and at 600 Gy over 33% of the eggs hatched. When pupation or adult emergence was used as a criterion for measuring effectiveness, however, the effects of gamma radiation were very severe. In the most resistant age group (73–96 h old), 150 Gy completely prevented pupation and adult emergence and all larvae resulting from eggs irradiated <49 h old died before pupation. In addition, the rate of development of immature stages resulting from irradiated eggs was negatively affected and sex ratio was skewed in favor of males.     

Effects of low-dose gamma-irradiation on production of shikonin derivatives in callus cultures of Lithospermum erythrorhizon S.

The yield increase of secondary metabolite production was examined in plant cell cultures with the use of relatively low to high doses gamma irradiation. Suspension culture of Lithospermum erythrorhizon cells was irradiated to 2, 16, and 32 Gy. The gamma irradiation significantly stimulated the shikonin biosynthesis of the cells and increased the total shikonin yields (intracellular+extracellular shikonin yields) by 400% at 16 Gy and by only 240% and 180% at 2 and 32 Gy, respectively. One of the key enzymes for the shikonin biosynthesis of cells, p-hydroxylbenzoic acid (PHB) geranyltransferase, was found to be stimulated by the gamma-radiation treatments. The activity of PHB geranyltransferase was increased at 2 and 16 Gy with a negligible change at 32 Gy. In contrast, the activity of PHB glucosyltransferase was slightly changed at all doses of gamma radiation compared with the control cells. Therefore, the increase in PHB geranyltransferase activity leads to the accumulation of secondary metabolites such as a shikonin, which may contribute to plant defense against the stresses induced by gamma irradiation.     

Gamma rays as an effective tool for removing undesirable color without adverse changes in biological activities of red beet extracts

The ethanolic extracts of red beet (Beta vulgaris L.) hairy root were used to investigate the removal of color and improvement of biological activity for enhanced industrial applications. The extracts were exposed to gamma rays ranging from 2.5 to 30 kGy. The red beet hairy root is composed of two major red-colorants, betanin and isobetanin. Gamma ray radiation at 5 kGy remarkably reduced the levels of the major colorants by 94% and the reddish color was eliminated by doses greater than 10 kGy. Color removal was likely due to the gamma ray radiolysis of ethanol. Although details on the mechanism responsible for the decay of the chromophore have not been entirely determined, our results suggest that the free radicals that are produced during this process are capable of destroying the chromophore group in isobetanin, thus bleaching the substrate solution. In spite of the degradation of the major colorants, the biological activities of constituents of the extract such as DPPH radical scavenging and tyrosinase inhibition were negligibly affected by the gamma ray radiation up to 20 kGy. The antioxidant activity was 92.7% in control samples and 90.0–92.0% in irradiated samples (2.5–20 kGy), and a slight decrease to 87.5% was observed for gamma ray radiation at 30 kGy. In addition, tyrosinase inhibition activity has also the same pattern; the activity is slightly increased from 50.7% of control to 49.1–52.8% of irradiated samples (2.5–20 kGy) with a 46.8% at 30 kGy.     

Sensory evaluation by gamma radiation effect on protein allergen of laying hen eggs

Although considered the most complete food and nutritionally shown to be part of a healthy diet, the egg is the source of many eating disorders, especially for infants. Irradiation has been used in studies not only as a means of microbiological control, but also on its structural action in the substances molecules and has been used to reduce the allergenic effects. The aim of this study was to evaluate the sensory effects of Co⁶⁰ gamma radiation on proteins, enabling the acceptability of allergy food for genetically intolerant people. Eggs commercial fresh and freeze-dried and subjected to gamma irradiation by Co⁶⁰ source at doses 0 (control), 10 kGy; 20 kGy and 30 kGy and rates of doses of 19.4 kGy/h and 31.8 kGy/h. Acceptability test was used by the hedonic scale, since it is necessary to know the “affective status” of consumers for the product, implying a preference, i.e. the most preferred samples are the most accepted and vice versa. The samples were presented as the habit of consumption (cooked) to a group of 41 adults panelists of both gender, aged from 21 to 40 years, and served under complete block design balanced with respect to the order of presentation. The evaluated attributes was flavor, appearance and overall acceptability. In general, for boiled eggs and freeze-dried, it was observed that the control sample was the most acceptable, followed by the sample irradiated with 10 kGy in both dose rates. In addition, panelists presented in testimony that they found interesting changes due to irradiation; also said they would not buy the product because of the marked change in appearance and smell, which at one point he ended up in disgust and detract from sales of the product, but they would buy irradiated with 10 kGy in both dose rate and dose of 20 kGy at a dose rate of 19.4 kGy/h.     

Effect of gamma radiation on chlorobutyl rubber vulcanized by three different crosslinking systems

The development of halogenated butyl rubber (chlorobutyl) in the 1950s and 1960s greatly extended the usefulness of butyl. Their properties allowed the development of more durable tubeless tires with the air retaining innerliner, chemically bonded to the body of the tire. Tire innerliners are by far the largest application for halobutyl. When polymers are subjected to high energy radiation, a number of chemical reactions may occur following the initial ionization and excitation events. These reactions lead to changes in the molecular weight of the polymer through scission (S) and crosslinking (X) of the molecules and affect the physical and mechanical properties. In the halobutyl rubbers the chain scission may predominate. This work aims to show effects of gamma radiation in properties of chlorobutyl rubbers vulcanized with sulfur, sulfur donor and phenolic resin. The butyl rubber has been already studied by us previously. The samples were characterized before and after irradiation. Gamma radiation doses used were: 25 kGy, 50 kGy, 100 kGy, 150 kGy and 200 kGy, in order to identify which cure system is the most stable under irradiation. In this study we observed that the properties of all samples were affected irrespective of the vulcanization system.     

Thermal,tensile and rheological properties of linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) irradiated by gamma-ray in different atmospheres

The aim of this paper is to investigate structural changes of linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) modified by ionizing radiation (gamma rays) in different atmospheres. The gamma radiation process for modification of commercial polymers is a widely applied technique to promote new physical–chemical and mechanical properties. Gamma irradiation originates free radicals which can induce chain scission or recombination, providing its annihilation, branching or crosslinking. This polymer was irradiated with gamma source of ⁶⁰Co at doses of 5, 10, 20, 50 or 100 kGy at a dose rate of 5 kGy/h. The changes in molecular structure of LLDPE, after gamma irradiations were evaluated using thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) and tensile machine and oscillatory rheology. The results showed the variations of the properties depending on the dose at each atmosphere.     

Final product analysis in the e-beam and gamma radiolysis of aqueous solutions of metoprolol tartrate

The radiostability of metoprolol tartrate aqueous solutions and the influence of the absorbed dose (0–50 kGy), dose rate (e-beam (EB) vs. gamma (γ)) and radioprotectors (pharmaceutical excipients) are investigated by HPLC-UV analyses and through computer simulations. The use of radioprotecting excipients is more promising than an increase in the dose rate to lower the degradation of metoprolol tartrate aqueous solutions for applications such as radiosterilization. The decontamination of metoprolol tartrate from waste waters by EB processing appears highly feasible.     

Influence of gamma radiation on the colour strength and fastness properties of fabric using turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) as natural dye

The effect of gamma radiation on the dyeing of cotton with extract of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) powder has been investigated. Cotton fabric and turmeric powder were irradiated to absorbed doses of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 kGy using Co-60 gamma irradiator. Dyeing parameters such as temperature, pH and mordant concentration were optimized. Dyeing was performed using un-irradiated and irradiated cotton with the extracts of un-irradiated and irradiated turmeric powder in order to investigate the effect of radiation treatment on the colour strength of dyed fabric. The reported data of un-irradiated and irradiated fabrics dyed with un-irradiated and irradiated dyes were obtained using the spectraflash SF-650. The colourfastness to light, rubbing- and washing-fastness properties showed that gamma irradiation has improved the dyeing characteristics from fair to good.     

Comparison of the changes of the antigenicities of a hen's egg albumin by a gamma and an electron beam irradiation

The study was conducted to compare the radiation types of a gamma ray and an electron beam for the inhibition and reduction of a food allergy. OVA (2 mg/ml) were irradiated at 3, 5, 7 and 10 kGy. Patterns detected by the SDS-PAGE and an immunoblot showed that the intact OVA band disappeared and that it was dependant upon the radiation doses regardless of the radiation types. Binding abilities of the irradiated OVA against the monoclonal IgG and the egg allergic patients’ IgE decreased due to a conformational change of the epitope, but differences from using the two different radiation types were not observed. The results indicate that both the radiation types can be used for an inhibition and a reduction of a food allergy regardless of the radiation types.