Three-component multi-phase velocimetry measurements on a GDI spray using optically efficient fluorescent tracers

Two- and three-component multi-phase air/fuel measurements have been performed on a GDI injector. UV-excitable fluorescent tracers have been used to seed the gas phase, and the naturally occurring droplets in the fuel are the other phase. A high-pressure multi-hole GDI injector was mounted in a rig with a glass barrel to simulate the engine cylinder and provide optical access. Images were obtained under controlled conditions of fuel pressure and injection duration. Flow phase and pulse order have been determined from a single 3CCD colour camera. Suitable corrective processes have been adapted and implemented to account for crosstalk and chromatic aberrations so that the uncertainty of the velocity vectors produced is comparable to that of conventional PIV using 532 nm illumination. Multi-phase air/fuel vector maps have been produced. A second colour camera has been added to obtain stereo velocity measurements providing previously unavailable simultaneous information on the multi-phase (fuel/air) interaction with three velocity components.     

Simultaneous velocity field measurements in two-phase flows for turbulent mixing of sprays by means of two-phase PIV

This paper describes a novel derivative of the PIV method for measuring the velocity fields of droplets and gas phases simultaneously using fluorescence images rather than Mie scattering images. Two-phase PIV allows the simultaneous and independent velocity field measurement of the liquid phase droplets and ambient gas in the case of two-phase flow mixing. For phase discrimination, each phase is labelled by a different fluorescent dye: the gas phase is seeded with small liquid droplets, tagged by an efficient fluorescent dye while the droplets of the liquid phases are tagged by a different fluorescent dye. For each phase, the wavelength shift of fluorescence is used to separate fluorescence from Mie scattering and to distinguish between the fluorescence of each phase. With the use of two cross-correlation PIV cameras and adequate optical filters, we obtain two double frame images, one for each phase. Thus standard PIV or PTV algorithms are used to obtain the simultaneous and independent velocity fields of the two phases. Because the two-phase PIV technique relies on the ability to produce two simultaneous and independent images of the two phases, the choice of the labelling dyes and of the associated optical filter sets is relevant for the image acquisition. Thus a spectroscopic study has been carried out to choose the optimal fluorescent dyes and the associated optical filters. The method has been evaluated in a simple two-phase flow: droplets of 30–40 μm diameter, produced by an ultrasonic nozzle are injected into a gas coflow seeded with small particles. Some initial results have been obtained which demonstrate the potential of the method.     

煤油液滴直径对两相旋转爆轰发动机流场的影响

为探究煤油液滴不同初始直径对气液两相旋转爆轰发动机流场的影响,假设初始注入的煤油液滴具有均匀直径,考虑雾化破碎、蒸发等过程,建立了非定常两相爆轰的Eulerian-Lagrangian模型,进行了液态煤油/高温空气爆轰的非预混二维数值模拟。结果表明：在初始液滴直径为1～70μm的工况范围,燃烧室内均形成了单个稳定传播的旋转爆轰波;全局当量比为1时,爆轰波前的空气区域大于液滴煤油的蒸气区域,导致波前燃料空气混合不均匀,波前均存在富油区和贫油区,两相速度差导致分离出的空气形成低温条带;当煤油液滴的初始直径较小时,波前的反应物混合过程主要受蒸发的影响,爆轰波可稳定传播;当直径减小至1μm时,煤油液滴在入口处即蒸发,旋转爆轰波表现为气相传播的特性,爆轰波结构平整;当煤油液滴的初始直径较大时,波前的反应物混合过程主要受液滴破碎的影响;对于相同的燃料质量流量,在不同初始煤油液滴直径工况下,煤油液滴最大的停留时间均占爆轰波传播时间尺度的80%以上;爆轰波前燃料预蒸发为气相的占比越高,爆轰波的传播速度越高;初始液滴直径为10～70μm的工况范围内,爆轰波的速度随初始直径的增大先升高后降低。     

Visualization of the evaporation of a diesel spray using combined Mie and Rayleigh scattering techniques

Evaporating Diesel sprays are studied by laser Rayleigh scattering measurements in an optically accessible high-pressure/high-temperature cell that reproduces the thermodynamic conditions which exist in the combustion chamber of a Diesel engine during injection. n-Decane is injected into the vessel using a state-of-the-art near-production three-hole nozzle. Global images of the distributions of the liquid and vapor phases of the injected fuel are obtained using a combined Schlieren and Mie scattering setup. More details about the evaporation are revealed when the spray is illuminated by a laser light sheet: laser light can be scattered by molecules in the gas phase (Rayleigh scattering) or comparably large fuel droplets (Mie scattering). The former is seen in regions where the fuel has completely evaporated, and the latter is dominant in regions with high droplet concentrations. Studying the polarization of the signal light allows the distinction of three different regions in the spray that are characterized by a moderate, low or negligible concentration of liquid fuel droplets. The characteristics of fuel evaporation are investigated for different observation times after the start of injection, chamber conditions and injection pressures. For the quantification of the fuel concentration measurements based on Rayleigh scattering, a calibration method that uses propane as a reference gas is presented and tested. At high ambient temperatures, the accuracy of the concentration measurements is limited by pyrolysis of the fuel molecules. This paper was originally presented at the 14th International Symposium on Applications of Laser Techniques to Fluid Mechanics, Lisbon, 2008.     

Simultaneous planar measurement of droplet velocity and size with gas phase velocities in a spray by combined ILIDS and PIV techniques

A new approach for simultaneous planar measurement of droplet velocity and size with gas phase velocities is reported, which combines the out-of-focus imaging technique ‘Interferometric Laser Imaging Droplet Sizing’ (ILIDS) for planar simultaneous droplet size and velocity measurements with the in-focus technique ‘Particle Image Velocimetry’ (PIV) for gas velocity measurements in the vicinity of individual droplets. Discrimination between the gas phase seeding and the droplets is achieved in the PIV images by removing the glare points of focused droplet images, using the droplet position obtained through ILIDS processing. Combination of the two optical arrangements can result in a discrepancy in the location of the centre of a droplet, when imaging through ILIDS and PIV techniques, of up to about 1 mm, which may lead to erroneous identification of the glare points from droplets on the PIV images. The magnitude of the discrepancy is a function of position of the droplet’s image on the CCD array and the degree of defocus, but almost independent of droplet size. Specifically, it varies approximately linearly across the image along the direction corresponding to the direction of propagation of the laser sheet for a given defocus setting in ILIDS. The experimental finding is supported by a theoretical analysis, which was based on geometrical optics for a simple optical configuration that replicates the essential features of the optical system. The discrepancy in the location was measured using a monodisperse droplet generator, and this was subtracted from the droplet centres identified in the ILIDS images of a polydisperse spray without ‘seeding’ particles. This reduced the discrepancy between PIV and ILIDS droplet centres from about 1 mm to about 0.1 mm and hence increased the probability of finding the corresponding fringe patterns on the ILIDS image and glare points on the PIV image. In conclusion, it is shown that the proposed combined method can discriminate between droplets and ‘seeding’ particles and is capable of two-phase measurements in polydisperse sprays.     

Local gas and liquid phase velocity measurement in a miniature stirred vessel using PIV combined with a new image processing algorithm

A method which combines standard two-dimensional particle image velocimetry (PIV) with a new image processing algorithm has been developed to measure the average local gas bubble velocities, as well as the local velocities of the liquid phase, within small stirred vessel reactors. The technique was applied to measurements in a gas–liquid high throughput experimentation (HTE) vessel of 45 mm diameter, but it is equally suited to measurements in larger scale reactors. For the measurement of liquid velocities, 3 μm latex seeding particles were used. For gas velocity measurements, a separate experiment was conducted which involved doping the liquid phase with fluorescent Rhodamine dye to allow the gas–liquid interfaces to be identified. The analysis of raw PIV images enabled the detection of bubbles within the laser plane, their differentiation from obscuring bubbles in front of the laser plane, and their use in lieu of tracer particles for gas velocity analysis using cross-correlation methods. The accuracy of the technique was verified by measuring the velocity of a bubble rising in a vertical glass column. The new method enabled detailed velocity fields of both phases to be obtained in an air–water system. The overall flow patterns obtained showed a good qualitative agreement with previous work in large scale vessels. The downward liquid velocities above the impeller were greatly reduced by the addition of the gas, and significant differences between the flow patterns of the two-phases were observed.     

Breakup and atomization characteristics of mono-dispersed diesel droplets in a cross-flow air stream

This paper describes the microscopic and macroscopic breakup characteristics, as well as the velocity and size distributions, of mono-dispersed droplets in relation to the breakup regimes. For this experiment, a droplet generator equipped with a piezo stack produced mono-dispersed droplets. The droplet-breakup phenomenon due to the cross-flow was captured in microscopic and macroscopic views by using the following: a spark lamp, a Nd:YAG laser, a long distance microscope and a CCD camera as a function of the Weber number. Along with the analysis of the images, the droplet size and velocity distributions were measured in the near nozzle region by a phase Doppler particle analyzer system at bag, stretching and thinning, and catastrophic breakup regimes. The results of this study showed the size and velocity distributions of disintegrated droplets at the bag, stretching and thinning, and catastrophic breakup regimes. In the bag breakup regime, the droplets separated into small and large droplets during breakup. Alternatively, the droplets disintegrated at a shorter duration and formed a cloud, similar to a fuel spray injected through an injector, in the stretching and thinning and catastrophic breakup regimes.     

Secondary atomization of water and isooctane drops impinging on tilted heated surfaces

The present paper reports an experimental study aimed at characterizing the effects of heat transfer on the secondary atomization, which occurs during droplet impact on hot surfaces at conditions reproducing those occurring at fuel injection in internal combustion engines. The experiments consider single isooctane and water droplets impacting at different angles on a stainless steel surface with known roughness and encompass a range of Weber numbers from 240 to 600 and heat transfer regimes from the film-vaporization up to the Leidenfrost regime. The mechanisms of secondary breakup are inferred from the temporal evolution of the morphology of the impact imaged with a CCD camera, together with instantaneous measurements of droplet size and velocity. The combination of a technique for image processing with a phase Doppler instrument allows evaluating extended size distributions from 5.5 μm up to a few millimetres and to cover the full range of secondary droplet sizes observed at all heat transfer regimes and impaction angles. Temporal evolution of the size and velocity distributions are then determined. The experiments are reported at impact conditions at which disintegration does not occur at ambient temperature. So, any alteration observed in droplet impact behavior is thermally induced. The analysis is relevant for port fuel injection systems, where droplets injected to impact on the back surface of the valves, behave differently depending on fuel properties, particularly when the use of alcohols is considered, even as an additive to gasoline.     

超声速气流中雾化燃料喷射的三维数值研究

首次用双流体模型对雾化燃料在扩张形超燃室中沿九喷嘴顺流喷射的混合问题进行了数值研究。气相用迎风 TVD格式求解三维全 Navier- Stokes方程 ,液相用预估、校正 NND格式求解三维 Euler方程。相间相互作用的常微分方程用预估、校正Runge- Kutta法求解。用三维 Poisson方程生成网格。结果表明 :气相较液相的扩散效果好 ,小直径液滴的扩散效果好。相间速度滑移、改变气相喷射压力和喷射速度对液相扩散的贡献不大 ,但调整喷射角度会明显地增强液相的扩散、混合 ,本文结果未出现阻塞。     

基于液体碳氢燃料的旋转爆轰燃烧特性研究

为了探索液体碳氢燃料参与旋转爆轰所产生的不完全燃烧现象,采用守恒元与求解元方法,开展柱坐标系下的汽油/空气两相旋转爆轰燃烧室三维数值模拟研究,针对燃料喷注压力和反应物当量比对旋转爆轰流场结构及燃烧室性能的影响进行分析。分析结果表明:保持总当量比为1.00,随着燃料喷注压力的上升,燃烧室内燃料不均匀分布增强,产生局部富燃区,燃料在燃烧室未能完全反应,导致燃烧室燃料比冲下降;保持喷注压力不变,减小当量比,在贫燃工况下依然存在局部富燃区,导致燃烧室内出现不完全燃烧现象,降低燃烧室比冲性能。由此可知,反应物喷注方案对气液两相旋转爆轰的不完全燃烧有显著影响。     

Temperature measurements on droplets in monodisperse stream using laser-induced fluorescence

This paper presents a novel technique based on laser-induced fluorescence in liquids, allowing the temperature of 200-μm diameter monodisperse droplets to be measured. The droplets are seeded with an organic dye (rhodamine B), and the temperature dependence of the fluorescence quantum yield is used to determine temperature. The use of LDA optics and a single argon laser source allows to obtain an additional simultaneous velocity measurement. The method appears particularly interesting for the validation of numerical models of evaporating and combusting droplets in the field of design of the combustion chambers of aeronautical and automotive engines, where fuel is injected in droplet form. The measurement technique and data processing are extensively described in the paper. The method is demonstrated on a heated monodisperse droplet stream: the temperature and velocity distribution along the jet were determined. Received: 28 May 1999/Accepted: 13 December 1999     

Spray analysis of a gasoline direct injector by means of two-phase PIV

The hollow-cone spray of a high-pressure swirl injector for a direct-injection spark-ignition (DISI) engine was investigated inside a pressure vessel by means of particle image velocimetry (PIV). As the interaction between the spray droplets and the ambient air is of particular interest for the mixture preparation process, two-phase PIV techniques were applied. To allow phase discrimination, fluorescent seeding particles were used to trace the gas phase. Because of the periodicity of piston engine injection, a statistical evaluation of ensemble-averaged fields to reduce cycle-to-cycle variations and to provide more general information about the two-phase flow was performed. Besides the general spray/air interaction process the investigation of the spray collapse at elevated ambient pressures was the main focus of the study. Future investigations of transient interaction processes require simultaneous techniques in combination with a high-speed camera to resolve the transient interaction phenomena. Therefore, optical filters that attenuate Mie-scattered light and transmit fluorescent light were used to collect both phases on the same image. Consequently, phase separation techniques were employed for data analysis. A masking and a peak separation technique are described and a comparison between the results of an instantaneous two-phase flow field in the spray cone of a DISI injector is presented in the paper.     

Experimental analysis of the flow characteristics of a pressure-atomised spray

An experimental setup has been created to allow measurements of the properties of the gas phase, the liquid phase and the mixture in a pressure-atomised spray of water, in terms of both mean quantities and Reynolds stresses. This setup involves laser Doppler velocimetry for determining the velocity of either the gas or liquid phase, according to the parameters used, such as seeding or no-seeding of the ambient air, laser source power, or photo-multiplier gains, droplet tracking velocimetry for determining the velocity and characteristic size of the droplets, and a single optical probe for determining the mean volume fraction of the liquid, from which the liquid mean mass fraction and the mean density of the mixture are inferred. The experimental conditions, in particular in terms of liquid and gas Weber numbers, were chosen in a range for which the liquid phase turbulent kinetic energy should be mainly responsible for the liquid-jet primary break-up, these flow conditions lying within the second wind-induced atomization regime. Results reported herein are more specifically focused on the region ranging from 400 nozzle diameters to 800 nozzle diameters, where the liquid core is disrupted. They provide new information about the formation and properties of such pressure-atomised sprays, in particular in terms of the role played by the Reynolds stresses resulting from the slip velocity between the liquid and the gas. The mean slip velocity is directly related to the turbulent flux of liquid. Such information will be used in the future to develop new turbulence models since very limited experimental information is so far available for these terms.     

Evaporation of bi-component droplets in a heated, highly turbulent flow

This work aims to understand the phenomena that occur in a combustion chamber where multi-component fuel droplets are injected. Many evaporation models exist but the influence of turbulence on spray vaporization is not yet well understood. This study gives a useful database to improve these models. The objective of the work is to measure the dispersion and the evaporation of bi-component (octane/3-pentanone) droplets and the resulting vapor mixing in a well-known, heated, highly turbulent channel flow. The carrier flow shows high turbulence levels, flat profiles for the mean velocity and the velocity fluctuations. The injected droplets have a large variety of behaviors due to the large polydispersion and to the turbulence. The evolution of 3-pentanone liquid concentration, mass flux, and droplet clusters are described. Mean concentration, fluctuations of concentration, and mixing of the vapor phase are characterized.     

Instantaneous and simultaneous planar velocity field measurements of two phases for turbulent mixing of high pressure sprays

This paper describes the tests of accuracy and the first application of a combined planar visualization technique. Its goal is two-phase flow discrimination, i.e. simultaneous measurements of velocity of droplets and ambient gas in the case of two-phase flow mixing, at the same location and with possible conditioning by “apparent diameter” (AD) of the droplets. It combines the mature techniques of particle image velocimetry (PIV), planar Mie scattering diffusion (PMSD), planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF), and it necessitates two synchronized cross-correlation systems, digital image treatment and analysis. This technique was developed with the objective of better describing the mixing between liquid and gaseous phases as in the case of high-pressure spray atomization in quiescent ambient gas. The basic principle of separation is to seed the ambient gas with micrometer particles and to tag the liquid with fluorescent dye. We use digital image treatment and analysis to discriminate between the phases. We use two cross-correlation PIV systems in order to obtain the velocity field of the droplets and gas simultaneously and separately at the same location. The digital image processing for separating the phases involves geometric measurement of droplet shapes. This leads to measurement of droplet parameters close to their real diameter, which could be used for analysis of actual mixing. A synchronized system composed of two CCD cameras is used for image recording, and two Nd:YAG lasers are used for generating pulsed light sheets at times t and t + δt. Tests were performed to check for different sources of errors. The combined technique was applied to measurements in high-pressure spray flow atomizing in a quiescent ambient gas, and first results are presented.     

Liquid fuel droplets entrained in the transient unidimensional gas flow in a pipe

Studies of fuel droplets entrained in air flow are deemed to be important in the understanding of fuel transportation and evaporation in the induction system of spark-ignition engines. So far the studies by other authors were restricted to steady air flow, however, the air flow in the induction system is pulsative unsteady air flow. This paper presents a theoretical model and the computational solution for the fuel liquid droplets entrained in the transient unidimensional air flow in a pipe.     

Simultaneous size and velocity measurements of cavitating microbubbles using interferometric laser imaging

In this paper, interferometric laser imaging droplet sizing—ILIDS—is applied to incipient cavitation in the wake of a marine propeller model with the aim to evaluate simultaneously bubbles velocity and diameter. Until now, the feasibility of this technique has been demonstrated especially in sprays of water droplets in air where an optimal light scattering is obtained thanks to the spherical shape and to the given relative refractive index. In the present setup, to allow simultaneous size–velocity measurements, a single camera is used and the object distance over lens diameter ratio is kept as small as possible, thus increasing the size measurement resolution. These details, together with the algorithms used for image analysis at each single frame and in two consecutive frames, allow deriving cavitation bubble size and velocity distributions in the propeller wake.     

Effect of Fuel Stratification on OH and $${\mathrm {CH}}_{2}\hbox {O}$$ CH 2 O PLIF Multiplication of Turbulent Hydrogen-Enriched Flames

Multiplication of hydroxyl and formaldehyde planar laser-induced fluorescence signals for turbulent hydrogen-enriched methane–air flames with compositionally inhomogeneous mixtures is investigated experimentally. Hydrogen-enriched methane–air flames with a global fuel–air equivalence ratio of 0.8 and hydrogen-enrichment percentage of 60% are examined. Two nozzles, each containing 4 fuel/air injection lobes are used in the experiments. The lobes of the first nozzle are straight, while those of the second nozzle are not, generating a swirling motion. The fuel is injected through several small diameter holes into the lobes. The amount of injected fuel flow rate varies between the lobes, generating stratified conditions. For each nozzle, two mean bulk flow velocities of 5 and 25 m/s are tested. Simultaneous hydroxyl and formaldehyde planar laser-induced fluorescence as well as separate stereoscopic particle image velocimetry are performed for the tested reacting conditions. For non-reacting flow tests, separate particle image velocimetry and acetone planar laser-induced fluorescence experiments are conducted to study the background turbulent flow characteristics and fuel/air mixing, respectively. The results show that stratification can lead to fragmentation of the flames and generation of islands with noticeable multiplication of hydroxyl and formaldehyde planar laser-induced fluorescence signals. Due to their significantly large number of occurrences, such flame structure can generate relatively large integral of the PLIF signals multiplication.

     

Experimental analysis of the precessing vortex core in a free swirling jet

An experimental analysis of the precessing vortex core (PVC) instability in a free swirling jet of air at ambient pressure and temperature is performed by means of laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV) and particle image velocimetry (PIV). Two parametric studies are considered, varying the swirl parameter and the Reynolds number. The range of parameters considered allowed to study conditions of strong precession as well as the inception and settlement of the instability. Mean velocity and standard deviation profiles, power spectral density functions and probability density functions for the axial and tangential velocity components are presented. Average as well as instantaneous PIV maps are considered in the characterization of the flowfield structure and detection of the instantaneous position of the vortex center. Joint analysis of velocity PDFs and power spectra shows that the PVC contribution to the global statistics of the velocity field can be properly separated from the contribution of the true flow turbulence, giving additional insight to the physics of the precession phenomenon. The results obtained in the explored range of conditions indicate that the true turbulence intensity is not dependent on the swirl parameter. An erratum to this article can be found at     

泡沫镍/聚氨酯双连续复合材料的液滴冲蚀行为研究

利用液滴冲蚀试验装置,开展了泡沫镍/聚氨酯双连续复合材料和纯聚氨酯的液滴冲蚀试验研究,并采用PIV系统,测量了液滴冲蚀中液滴速度和直径. 结果表明:随着冲击能量的增加,复合材料表现出比纯聚氨酯更好的抗液滴冲蚀性能;泡沫镍结构参数对复合材料的液滴冲蚀行为有重要影响,泡沫镍孔径越小、体密度越大,复合材料的抗冲蚀能力越强;密集的金属骨架能有效阻挡高速液滴的破坏作用,并为树脂基体提供较强的阴影保护效应和地毯保护效应,显著提高复合材料的抗冲蚀性能.