Photoneutrons from a beryllium reflector: a potential source of problems with Zr–Au flux monitors in <Emphasis Type="Italic">k</Emphasis><Subscript>0</Subscript> standardization based neutron activation analysis

The assumption that the shape of the epithermal neutron spectrum can be described, in any research reactor, by the 1/E ^1+α function is a fundamental starting point of the k ₀ standardization. This assumption may be questioned from a reactor physics viewpoint. The type of moderator, the existence of neutron reflectors, the additional production of (γ, n) neutrons and resonance capture by construction materials may be different for each reactor, with consequences for the shape of the neutron spectrum. This dependency may explain that various practitioners reported contradicting experiences with the use of Zr–Au flux monitors for the determination of the α-parameter. An objective view on the influence of the design of the reactor and irradiation facility on the shape of the neutron spectrum can be obtained by modeling. This has been applied in the Reactor Institute Delft for reactor configurations in which the irradiation facilities face the fuel elements with the presence of beryllium reflector elements. The Monte Carlo calculations indicate a distortion of the 1/E ^1+α relationship at the higher energy edge of the epithermal neutron spectrum. This distortion is attributed to the formation and thermalisation of both photoneutrons and (n, 2n) produced fast neutrons in the beryllium, and has a direct impact on the resonance activation of ⁹⁵Zr, other than represented by the 1/E ^1+α function. The obtained relationship between neutron flux and neutron energy was also used for estimating the f-value and compared with the value obtained by the Delft Cr–Mo–Au flux monitor.     

Experimental and MCNP calculations of neutron flux parameters in irradiation channel at Es-Salam reactor

The Algerian research reactor (Es-Salam) is a 15 MW heavy water reactor type, operating since 1992. It became essential to characterize the neutron field in the most useful irradiation positions, in order to guarantee the accuracy in the application of k ₀-neutron activation analysis (k ₀-NAA). Experimental value of the thermal to epithermal neutron flux ratio (f) and of the deviation of the epithermal neutron spectrum from 1/E shape (α) were determined using different methods. This work focuses the verification of Monte Carlo neutron flux calculation in typical irradiation channel. Comparison of the results for parameter f obtained experimentally and by Monte Carlo simulations shows good agreement in the irradiation channel studied. The difference between both results is about 2.08%.     

Using synthetic multi-element standards (SMELS) for calibration and quality control of the irradiation facilities in the BR1 reactor

The thermal to epithermal neutron flux ratio (f) and the deviation of the epithermal neutron spectrum from the 1/E shape (α) are essential parameters for the correct application of k ₀-standardized neutron activation analysis. Several methods are applied for the determination of f and α. They are based on Cd-covered multi-monitor or on bare-irradiations methods. The recently developed and characterized synthetic multi-element standards (SMELS) were designed as a validation tool for the proper implementation of the k ₀-NAA method in a laboratory. In particular, SMELS Type III contains Au and Zr, thus allowing the direct determination of f and α. It could, therefore, replace the traditional flux monitors. Furthermore, it could be used as a quality control material to monitor the stability of the irradiation facility and the detector. This paper presents the accuracy of the f and α determination and the feasibility of quality control using SMELS for irradiation channel Y4 of the BR1 reactor.     

Neutron spectrum calibration using the Cd-ratio for multi-monitor method with a synthetic multi-element standard

Several methods are in use for the determination of the thermal to epithermal neutron fluence rate ratio (f) and the deviation of the epithermal neutron spectrum from the 1/E shape parameter (α). In our former work, it was proven that the recently developed and characterized Synthetic Multi-ELement Standard (SMELS) can be used for the fast verification of the stability of the irradiation parameters using the Au-Zr bare monitor method. However, this latter method using SMELS had a too low precision for an accurate determination of f and α. Therefore, the Cd-ratio for multi-monitor method using SMELS was investigated for two irradiation channels. As shown the material can also be used as a monitor for the calibration of an irradiation facility.     

Instantaneous α-determination without Cd-cover in the 1/E1+α epithermal neutron spectrum

A new method is developed for instantaneous α-determination in the 1/E^1+α epithermal neutron spectrum. It is based on coirradiation of three bare resonance detectors, followed by gamma-counting on a calibrated Ge(Li)-detector. The technique is applied in two channels of the Thetis reactor (Gent) and the results are critically compared with those obtained by other methods. Research Associate of the “Nationaal Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek”.     

Installation of Kayzero-INAA standardization in the TNRC and its applications for trace elements determination in different materials

The paper focuses on the validation of the k ₀-method of instrumental neutron activation analysis (k ₀-INAA) in the Tajura Nuclear Research Center (TNRC) via the analysis of several certified reference materials. The selected reference materials were: SRM 1572 Citrus Leaves, SRM 1575 Pine Needles, IAEA-A11 Milk Powder, IAEA-V-10 Hay Powder, RM IAEA-Soil-7 and RM IAEA-SL-1 Lake Sediment. The method is based on the PC version Kayzero/Solcoi software package issued by DSM. All the samples, reference materials and monitors were irradiated in various positions of the Tajura reactor with different f and α. The parameters f and α (f — thermal/epithermal neutron flux ratio, α — parameter accounting for the non-ideality of the 1/E epithermal neutron fluence rate distribution) were determined using the bare triple monitor method. The results obtained for all the reference materials are in good agreement with the certified values.     

Modification and generalization of some methods to improve the accuracy of α-determination in the 1/E1+α epithermal neutron spectrum

Some methods described in the literature for the determination of α in the 1/E^1+α epithermal neutron spectrum are critically reviewed with respect to their accuracy. The multi resonance—detector method with Cd-covered irradiations, as used by SCHUMANN and ALBERT, is generalized by subtracting the epithermal 1/v-tail and by introducing the effective resonance energy, as defined by RYVES. The two-detector method of RYVES is modified by using Cd-ratio measurements, thus eliminating the introduction of systematic errors due to the inaccuracy of absolute nuclear data. The adapted methods are applied in channel 15 of the Thetis reactor (Gent). Research Associate of the “Nationaal Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek”     

Measurements of the thermal neutron cross-sections and resonance integrals for 186W (n,γ) 187W and 98Mo (n,γ) 99Mo reactions

The thermal neutron cross-sections and resonance integrals of the ¹⁸⁶W (n,γ) ¹⁸⁷W and ⁹⁸Mo (n,γ) ⁹⁹Mo reactions in the thermal and 1/E regions, respectively, of a thermal reactor neutron spectrum have been experimentally determined by the activation method using ¹⁹⁷Au (n,γ) ¹⁹⁸Au reaction as a single comparator. The high purity natural W, Mo, and Zr foils; and Au wire diluted in aluminum, were irradiated without Cd shield in two neutron irradiation sites, characterized with different values for the thermal-to-epithermal flux ratios, f at the Second Egyptian Research Reactor (ETRR-2). The induced activities in the samples were measured by high-resolution γ-ray spectrometry with a calibrated germanium detector. Thermal neutron cross-sections for 2200 m/s neutrons and resonance integrals for the ¹⁸⁶W (n,γ) ¹⁸⁷W and ⁹⁸Mo (n,γ) ⁹⁹Mo reactions have been obtained relative to the reference values, σ₀ = 98.65 ± 0.09 b and I ₀ = 1500 ± 28 b for the ¹⁹⁷Au (n,γ) ¹⁹⁸Au reaction. The necessary correction factors for thermal neutron and resonance neutron self-shielding effects, and the epithermal flux index (α) were taken into account in the determinations. The results obtained were: σ₀ = 38.43 ± 0.4 b and I ₀ = 502 ± 65 b for ¹⁸⁶W (n,γ) ¹⁸⁷W, and σ₀ = 0.137 ± 0.014 band I ₀ = 6.47 ± 0.8 for ⁹⁸Mo (n,γ) ⁹⁹Mo. These results are discussed and compared with previous measurements and evaluated data in literature. The traditional method of determining thermal cross-sections and resonance integrals via neutron irradiation with and without Cd shield in one irradiation position was avoided in this work by neutron irradiation without Cd shield in at least two different neutron irradiation positions. This method provides alternative way for determining thermal cross-sections and resonance integrals simultaneously.     

Energy dependence of the epithermal neutron spectrum shape parameter α with respect to application of comparator-type NAA

The epithermal neutron spectrum shape parameter in nuclear reactors is explained from a theoretical point of view in terms of the neutron slowing down density function. The latter is approximated by Fermi's age theory. Values for are calculated for a simple approximation of a nuclear reactor: a disk shaped fission neutron source in an infinite graphite moderator. The model produces -values with the correct sign and magnitude, compared to experimental values from the literature, determined in a real reactor. It is shown that varies strongly with distance to the neutron source and less strongly with neutron energy. The inappropriateness of average -values, obtained from the slope of quasi-straight lines produced by log-log plots of E^– versus E, for the correction of non-ideal epithermal neutron activation is discussed. Conclusions are formulated concerning the impact of an energy dependent on comparator type NAA.     

INAA of Minoan ceramics from Kommos,Crete

A recent study concerning the deviation of the E^–(1+) epithermal neutron flux distribution from the E^–1 law, developed by F. DE CORTE et al. is applied to -determination in different channels of the CRN reactor (Strasbourg). It is found that the coefficient is positive inside the reactor core and negative outside. The accuracy of the neutron activation analysis using the corrected resonance integral I() is tested.     

The accuracy and precision of the experimental α-determination in the 1/E1+α epithermal reactor-neutron spectrum

Some methods for the experimental α-determination in the 1/E^1+α epithermal reactorneutron spetrum are critically compared with respect to their accuracy and precision. The analysis is based on the error propagation theory. Besides the general formulae numerical examples are elaborated for specific conditions in the Thetis reactor (Gent) and the WWR-M reactor (Budapest).     

Epithermal neutron flux characterization of the TRIGA MARK II reactor,Ljubljana, Yugoslavia,for use in NAA

The nonideality of the epithermal neutron flux distribution at a reactor site can be described by a 1/E¹⁺ spectrum representation, with parameter being a measure of the nonideality. -values were determined in 3 typical irradiation positions of the TRIGA MARK II reactor of the Jozef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Yugoslavia, using the Cd-ratio for multi-monitor method. The simpler Cd-ratio for dual monitor method (monitors:¹⁹⁷Au–⁹⁴Zr) also yielded reliable results. This characterisation is of use in the k₀-method of NAA, which is recently introduced at the Institute.     

Serum aluminum determination by instrumental neutron activation analysis in long-term haemodialysis patients

Serum aluminum levels were determined by instrumental neutron activation analysis in 31 patients undergoing long-term haemodialysis. Aluminum-28 1.778 MeV (T _1/2=2.24 min) γ-rays produced by the thermal neutron reaction²⁷Al(n,γ)²⁸Al were detected. Successive irradiation of the samples at epithermal neutron fluence was performed to correct for the interference from the fast neutron reaction³¹P(n,α)²⁸Al. Serum aluminum level in this group of subjects was adequately represented by a lognormal distribution with a mean and variance of 16.5 μg/l and 16.8 μg/l, respectively. The results obtained were found to be in agreement with serum aluminum determination performed by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrophotometry (r ²=0.97). Instrumental neutron activation can provide a rapid technique to routinely monitor long-term haemodialysis patients in order to identify individuals at greater risk to develop aluminum toxicity.     

Implementation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">k</Emphasis><Subscript>0</Subscript>-standardization method of the INAA at ETRR-2 research reactor

The k ₀-method of INAA standardization has been implemented using the irradiation facilities of the fast pneumatic rabbit and some selected manually loaded irradiation positions, which designated for short and long irradiation, respectively, at Egypt second research reactor. The neutron flux parameters (f and α) in each site have been determined using Zr–Au sets as neutron flux monitors. The reference materials coal NIST 1632c and IAEA-Soil 7 were analyzed for data validation and good agreement between the experimental values and the certified values was obtained.     

Development and implementation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">k</Emphasis><Subscript>0</Subscript>-INAA standardization at PINSTECH

The k ₀ method has been introduced at the 30 kW miniaturized neutron source reactor (MNSR) at the Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH). It involved the full energy peak efficiency calibration of the HPGe detector for different counting geometries and the characterization of the neutron flux at four inner irradiation channels. The latter involved the determination of the thermal to the epithermal flux ratio, epithermal flux shape factor, the modified spectral index, Westcott’s g-factor, the Maxwellian neutron temperature and the fast flux. The method was validated by analyzing IAEA-SL1 (Lake Sediment) and NIST-SRM-1572 (Citrus Leaves) reference materials. All calculations were performed in Excel, including the optimization step. The results revealed that most of the elements were estimated with less than 10% relative deviation from the certified value.     

A simple method for a determination

The a term is a primary parameter that is used to indicate the deviation of the epithermal neutron distribution in the k ₀-standardization method of neutron activation analysis, k ₀-NAA. The calculation of a using a mathematical procedure is a challenge for some researchers. The calculation of a by the "bare-triple monitor" method is possible using the dedicated commercial software KAYZERO^®/SOLCOI^®. However, when this software is not available in the laboratory it is possible to carry out the calculation of a applying a simple iterative linear regression using any spreadsheets. This approach is described in this paper. The experimental data used in the example were obtained by the irradiation of a set of suitable monitors in the NAA #1 irradiation channel of the HANARO research reactor (KAERI, Korea). The results obtained by this iterative linear regression method agree well with the results calculated by the validated mathematical method.     

ko-measurements and related nuclear data compilation for (n, γ) reactor neutron activation analysis

k_o-factors of 35 isotopes used in reactor neutron activation analysis were measured with a high degree of accuracy (1–2%). To minimize systematic errors, measurements were carried out using different reactor types, irradiation conditions (18 < Φ_s/Φ_e), Ge(Li) detectors, sample detector geometry, etc. Analyst-oriented tabulations including all necessary nuclear data, “best values”, as well as recommended k_o-values are given to facilitate analytical work with the new method. Some practical aspects as well as limitations of the k_o-method are also outlined together with the applied neutron flux and cross-section conventions. Research associate of the National Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek, Belgium     

Variation in k0 neutron flux parameters after replacement of the beryllium reflector and graphite wedge at the University of Missouri Research Reactor

In January 2006 the beryllium reflector and graphite wedge that contained the k₀ INAA irradiation position were replaced at the University of Missouri Research Reactor. Prior to replacement the average values of the flux ratio, f, and the epithermal non-ideality factor, α, were 57.4 ± 4.5 and 0.039 ± 0.012. The values of f and α immediately after the beryllium and graphite wedge replacement were 39.4 ± 0.6 and 0.021 ± 0.002. Subsequent measurements indicate that the neutron spectrum hardened with time, possibly due to the buildup of the ⁶Li atom density to saturation.     

Neutron flux variability at the TRIGA MARK II reactor,Ljubljana, as a parameter with applying the ko-method of NAA

Neutron-flux behaviour during irradiation should be known when applying the k_o-method of neutron activation analysis /NAA/. During two 100-hour operating periods of the TRIGA MARK II reactor, Ljubljana, the flux was measured by means of a¹⁹⁷Au/n,/¹⁹⁸Au monitor /E=411.8 keV/. Cadmium-covered irradiations were also performed to obtain the epithermal flux and thermal-to-epithermal flux ratio variations. Consistency was found between these results and the reactor operators' logbook record.