Torsion angle preference and energetics of small-molecule ligands bound to proteins

Small organic molecules can assume conformations in the protein-bound state that are significantly different from those in solution. We have analyzed the conformations of 21 common torsion motifs of small molecules extracted from crystal structures of protein-ligand complexes and compared them with their torsion potentials calculated by an ab initio DFT method. We find a good correlation between the potential energy of the torsion motifs and their conformational distribution in the protein-bound state: The most probable conformations of the torsion motifs agree well with the calculated global energy minima, and the lowest torsion-energy state becomes increasingly dominant as the torsion barrier height increases. The torsion motifs can be divided into 3 groups based on torsion barrier heights: high (>4 kcal/mol), medium (2-4 kcal/mol), and low (<2 kcal/mol). The calculated torsion energy profiles are predictive for the most preferred bound conformation for the high and medium barrier groups, the latter group common in druglike molecules. In the high-barrier group of druglike ligands, >95% of conformational torsions occur in the energy region <4 kcal/mol. The conformations of the torsion motifs in the protein-bound state can be modeled by a Boltzmann distribution with a temperature factor much higher than room temperature. This high-temperature factor, derived by fitting the theoretical model to the experimentally observed conformation occurrence of torsions, can be interpreted as the perturbation that proteins inflict on the conformation of the bound ligand. Using this model, it is calculated that the average strain energy of a torsion motif in ligands bound to proteins is approximately 0.6 kcal/mol, a result which can be related to the lower binding efficiency of larger ligands with more rotatable bonds. The above results indicate that torsion potentials play an important role in dictating ligand conformations in both the free and the bound states.     

Conformational and docking studies of acyl homoserine lactones as a robust method to investigate bioactive conformations

A method aiming at investigating possible bioactive conformations of acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) quorum sensing (QS) modulators is established. The method relies on the exhaustive conformational analysis of AHLs by varying torsion angles around the amide group then on the selection of the closest conformation to those known from co-crystallized XRD data of AHL-receptor complexes. These latter are then docked as rigid ligand within the receptor binding site, leading to interactions with binding site residues which are highly consistent as compared with the data arising from XRD studies. The method is first validated using AHLs for which XRD data of their complexes with their cognate receptor are available, then extended to examples for which the binding mode is still unknown.Three compounds were used to validate the method: hexanoyl homoserine lactone (HHL) as an example of autoinducer, 3-oxo-butanoyl homoserine lactone (OBHL), as a representative model of 3-oxo-AHLs, and 4-(4-chlorophenoxy)butanoyl homoserine lactone (CPOBHL) as an example of a QS inhibitor. The conformational analysis of these three compounds to their cognate protein (TraR, SdiA, LasR and CviR) provides the data which enable the next rigid docking step. Further rigid docking of the closest conformations compared to the known bioactive ones within the binding sites allows to recover the expected binding mode with high precision (atomic RMSD < 2 Å). This “conformational analysis/torsion angle filter/rigid ligand docking” method was then used for investigating three non-natural AHL-type QS inhibitors without known co-crystallized XRD structures, namely was 2-hexenoyl homoserine lactone (HenHL), 3-oxo-4-phenylbutanoyl homoserine lactone (OPBHL) and 3-(4-bromophenyl)propanoyl homoserine lactone (BPPHL). Results provide insights into their possible binding mode by identifying specific interactions with some key residues within the receptor binding site, allowing discussion of their biological activity.     

Molecular modelling prediction of ligand binding site flexibility

We have investigated the efficacy of generating multiple sidechain conformations using a rotamer library in order to find the experimentally observed ligand binding site conformation of a protein in the presence of a bound ligand. We made use of a recently published algorithm that performs an exhaustive conformational search using a rotamer library to enumerate all possible sidechain conformations in a binding site. This approach was applied to a dataset of proteins whose structures were determined by X-ray and NMR methods. All chosen proteins had two or more structures, generally involving different bound ligands. By taking one of these structures as a reference, we were able in most cases to successfully reproduce the experimentally determined conformations of the other structures, as well as to suggest alternative low-energy conformations of the binding site. In those few cases where this procedure failed, we observed that the bound ligand had induced a high-energy conformation of the binding site. These results suggest that for most proteins that exhibit limited backbone motion, ligands tend to bind to low energy conformations of their binding sites. Our results also reveal that it is possible in most cases to use a rotamer search-based approach to predict alternative low-energy protein binding site conformations that can be used by different ligands. This opens the possibility of incorporating alternative binding site conformations to improve the efficacy of docking and structure-based drug design algorithms.     

Flexible matching of test ligands to a 3D pharmacophore using a molecular superposition force field: Comparison of predicted and experimental conformations of inhibitors of three enzymes

Summary A computer procedure TFIT, which uses a molecular superposition force field to flexibly match test compounds to a 3D pharmacophore, was evaluated to find out whether it could reliably predict the bioactive conformations of flexible ligands. The program superposition force field optimizes the overlap of those atoms of the test ligand and template that are of similar chemical type, by applying an attractive force between atoms of the test ligand and template which are close together and of similar type (hydrogen bonding, charge, hydrophobicity). A procedure involving Monte Carlo torsion perturbations, followed by torsional energy minimization, is used to find conformations of the test ligand which cominimize the internal energy of the ligand and the superposition energy of ligand and template. The procedure was tested by applying it to a series of flexible ligands for which the bioactive conformation was known experimentally. The 15 molecules tested were inhibitors of thermolysin, HIV-1 protease or endothiapepsin for which X-ray structures of the bioactive conformation were available. For each enzyme, one of the molecules served as a template and the others, after being conformationally randomized, were fitted. The fitted conformation was then compared to the known binding geometry. The matching procedure was successful in predicting the bioactive conformations of many of the structures tested. Significant deviation from experimental results was found only for parts of molecules where it was readily apparent that the template did not contain sufficient information to accurately determine the bioactive conformation.     

Conformational analysis of TMC114, a novel HIV-1 protease inhibitor

TMC114, a potent novel HIV-1 protease inhibitor, remains active against a broad spectrum of mutant viruses. In order to bind to a variety of mutants, the compound needs to make strong, preferably backbone, interactions and have enough conformational flexibility to adapt to the changing geometry of the active site. The conformational analysis of TMC114 in the gas phase yielded 43 conformers in which five types of intramolecular H-bond interactions could be observed. All 43 conformers were subject to both rigid and flexible ligand docking in the wild-type and a triple mutant (L63P/V82T/I84V) of HIV-1 protease. The largest binding energy was calculated for the conformations that are close to the conformation observed in the X-ray complexes of TMC114 and HIV-1 protease.     

Solid state conformational preferences in transition metal complexes double bridged by phosphate and related ligands

The conformational preferences in the {M(μ-OPO)}₂ core of transition metal complexes double bridged by phosphate and related ligands have been determined using data retrieved from the Cambridge Structural Database by a probabilistic method. The preferred conformations lie on a pseudorotation pathway (chair and twist-chair conformations). The influence of intra-ring bridges, metal atom, coordination number or ligand in the conformational preferences has been investigated.     

Methodological developments and strategies for a fast flexible superposition of drug-size molecules

An alternative to experimental high through-put screening is the virtual screening of compound libraries on the computer. In absence of a detailed structure of the receptor protein, candidate molecules are compared with a known reference by mutually superimposing their skeletons and scoring their similarity. Since molecular shape highly depends on the adopted conformation, an efficient conformational screening is performed using a knowledge-based approach. A comprehensive torsion library has been compiled from crystal data stored in the Cambridge Structural Database. For molecular comparison a strategy is followed considering shape associated physicochemical properties in space such as steric occupancy, electrostatics, lipophilicity and potential hydrogen-bonding. Molecular shape is approximated by a set of Gaussian functions not necessarily located at the atomic positions. The superposition is performed in two steps: first by a global alignment search operating on multiple rigid conformations and then by conformationally relaxing the best scored hits of the global search. A normalized similarity scoring is used to allow for a comparison of molecules with rather different shape and size. The approach has been implemented on a cluster of parallel processors. As a case study, the search for ligands binding to the dopamine receptor is given.     

An ab initio conformational study on 2,3-dihydrobilin-1,19(21H,24H)-dione, a model compound for open-chain tetrapyrroles

The molecule 2,3-dihydrobilin-1,19(21H,24H)-dione (DHB) was studied as a model of the fully conjugated linear open-chain tetrapyrroles phycocyanobilin (PCB), phycoerythrobilin (PEB) and phytochrome (PC) as well as biliverdin (BV) and bilirubin (BR). The rotations around the single bonds of the exocyclic methine bridges were investigated for all possible cis and trans, E and Z isomers of DHB. The geometries and energies of conformers were investigated with semiempirical and ab initio methods using AM1 and RHF/3-21G levels of theory. Results indicate that geometries with a central syn–cis configuration are preferred to other conformations around the central methine bridge. Four lowest energy conformations stabilized by hydrogen bonding and favorable geometric arrangements minimizing steric strain were predicted. This model elucidated the trends and identified variables associated with tetrapyrrole conformation and energy and thus may serve as a preliminary basis for studying other open-chain tetrapyrrole structures.     

Conformational analysis of nine-membered cyclic acetals. Stereoelectronic effect in 2,4- and 3,5-benzodioxonine derivatives

Conformations of the title compounds were examined using DFT calculations and NBO analysis in order to find the origins of their conformational preferences. The most stable conformations were TBC and TCBtype-1 for the 2,4- and 3,5-benzodioxonine derivatives, respectively. In both of these conformations the acetal moiety adopts the g+/-g+/- geometry. The NBO analysis yielded values of the stabilization energy associated with the stereoelectronic nO --> sigmaC-O* interactions that were highest for conformations other than the global minima. Conformers displaying the strongest interactions followed different patterns of atom arrangement within the acetal moiety, namely g+g-, and those in which one or both of the torsion angles within the C-O-C-O-C segment were close to 90 degrees . Steric repulsion caused by alkyl substituents at the anomeric carbon was found to influence the strength of the nO --> sigmaC-O* stabilization through modification of bond lengths and torsion angles. The adopted ground-state conformations result from accommodation of steric repulsions and stabilizing stereoelectronic interactions. It was shown that DFT calculations of conformational preferences of acetals together with GIAO prediction of 13C chemical shifts should be a useful methodology for studies on conformation and conformational equilibria of acetals in solution.     

Conformational sampling of bioactive molecules: a comparative study

The necessity to generate conformations that sample the entire conformational space accessible to a given molecule is ubiquitous in the field of computer-aided drug design. Protein-ligand docking, 3D database searching, and 3D QSAR are three commonly used techniques that depend critically upon the quality and diversity of the generated conformers. Although there are a wide range of conformational search algorithms available, the extent to which they sample conformational space is often unclear. To address this question, we conducted a robust comparison of the search algorithms implemented in several widely used molecular modeling packages, including Catalyst, Macromodel, Omega, MOE, and Rubicon as well as our own method, stochastic proximity embedding (SPE). We found that SPE used in conjunction with conformational boosting, a heuristic for biasing conformational search toward more extended or compact geometries, along with Catalyst, are significantly more effective in sampling the full range of conformational space compared to the other methods, which show distinct preferences for either more extended or more compact geometries.     

Conformational studies on (17alpha,20Z)-21-(X-Phenyl)-19-norpregna-1, 3,5(10),20-tetraene-3,17beta-diols using 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy and GIAO calculations of (13)C shieldings

Differences in agonist responses of the novel estrogen receptor ligands (17alpha,20Z)-(p-methoxyphenyl)vinyl estradiol (1), (17alpha, 20Z)-(o-alpha,alpha,alpha-trifluoromethylphenyl)vinyl estradiol (2), and (17alpha,20Z)-(o-hydroxymethylphenyl)vinyl estradiol (3) led us to investigate their solution conformation. In competitive binding assay studies, we observed that several phenyl-substituted (17alpha, 20E/Z)-(X-phenyl)vinyl estradiols exhibited significant estrogen receptor binding, but with variation (RBA (1) = 20; RBA (2) = 23; RBA (3) = 140 where estradiol RBA = 100) depending on the phenyl substitution pattern. Because the 17alpha-phenylvinyl substituent interacts with the key helix-12 of the ligand binding domain, we considered that differences in the preferred conformation of 1-3 could account for their varying binding affinity. 2D NMR experiments at 500 MHz allowed the complete assignment of the (13)C and (1)H spectra of 1-3. The conformations of these compounds in solution were established by 2D and 1D NOESY spectroscopy. A statistical approach of evaluating contributing conformers of 1-3 from predicted (13)C shifts correlated quite well with the NOE data. The 17alpha substituents of 1 and 2 exist in similar conformational equilibria with some differences in relative populations of conformers. In contrast, the 17alpha substituent of 3 exists in a different conformational equilibrium. The similarity in solution conformations of 1 and 2 suggests they occupy a similar receptor volume, consistent with similar RBA values of 20 and 23. Conversely, the different conformational equilibria of 3 may contribute to the significant binding affinity (RBA = 140) of this ligand.     

Molecular similarity studies on sandalwood odour molecules: Investigations of the conformational space

Summary Odour differences of some campholene and fencholene derivatives are explained by the analysis of the conformational space and the molecular shape of these molecules. The high flexibility caused by free rotation of some carbon-carbon bonds leads in one case to a large number of energetically possible conformations which have to be taken into account for a study of molecular similarity. In another case, steric restrictions reduce the number of relevant conformations such that no active conformation exists in a thermodynamic equilibrium.Conformational Calculations on Sandalwood Odour XII; for part XI, see Ref. [1]     

Automated conformational analysis: Algorithms for the efficient construction of low-energy conformations

Summary The method of constructing low-energy conformations using template joining can provide an efficient means of searching the conformational space of molecules. The simplest algorithm to perform this task would construct each potential conformation from scratch. However, new algorithms, some of which use techniques from Artificial Intelligence, have been developed which can greatly improve the efficiency of this approach.     

Assessment of conformational ensemble sizes necessary for specific resolutions of coverage of conformational space

The size of conformational ensembles required for regular coverage of the conformational space of druglike molecules was examined. Using the conformer generation program Omega, the number of regularly distributed conformers (NRC) of flexible compounds was determined as a function of the root-mean-square deviation (RMSD) resolution of coverage. A regression equation was developed predicting the NRC of a molecule as a function of RMSD. The model yielded R(2) of 0.91 for both training and test sets, which consisted of 3414 and 3352 compounds, respectively. Utilizing 14 504 ligands from the Protein Data Bank with experimentally determined 3-D conformations, the regression equation was applied to the estimation of the NRC and the success rate of reproduction of experimental conformations from a theoretical conformation ensemble as a function of RMSD and flexibility was explored.     

Small molecule conformational preferences derived from crystal structure data. A medicinal chemistry focused analysis

Based on torsion angle distributions of frequently occurring substructures, conformation preferences of druglike molecules are presented, accompanied by a review of the relevant literature. First, the relevance of the Cambridge Structural Database (CSD) for drug design is demonstrated by comparing substructures present in compounds entering clinical trials with those found in the CSD and protein-bound ligands in the Protein Data Bank (PDB). Next, we briefly highlight preferred conformations of elementary acyclic systems, followed by a discussion of sulfonamide conformations. Due to their central role in medicinal chemistry, we discuss properties of aryl ring substituents in depth, including biaryl systems and systems of two aryl rings connected by two acyclic bonds. For a subset of torsion motifs, we also compare torsion angle histograms derived from CSD structures with those derived from ligands in the PDB. Furthermore, selected properties of some six- and seven-membered ring systems are discussed. The article closes with a section on attractive sulfur-oxygen contacts.     

Conformational analysis of the eight-membered ring of the oxidized cysteinyl-cysteine unit implicated in nicotinic acetylcholine receptor ligand recognition.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are membrane-bound, pentameric ligand-gated ion channels associated with a variety of human disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, and pain. Most known nAChRs contain an unusual eight-membered disulfide-containing cysteinyl-cysteine ring, ox-[Cys-Cys], as does the soluble acetylcholine binding protein (AChBP) found in the snail Lymnaea stagnalis. The cysteinyl-cysteine ring is located in a region implicated in ligand binding, and conformational changes involving this ring may be important for modulation of nAChR function. We have studied the preferred conformations of Ac-ox-[Cys-Cys]-NH2 by NMR in water and computationally by Monte Carlo simulations using the OPLS-AA force field and GB/SA water model. ox-[Cys-Cys] adopts four distinct low-energy conformers at slightly above 0 degrees C in water. Two populations are dependent on the peptide omega2 dihedral angle, with the trans amide favored over the cis amide by a ratio of ca. 60:40. Two ox-[Cys-Cys] conformers with a cis amide bond (C+ and C-) differ from each other primarily by variation of the chi3 dihedral angle, which defines the orientation of the helicity about the S-S bond (+/- 90 degrees ). Two trans amide conformers have the same S-S helicity (chi3 approximately -90 degrees ), but are distinguished by a backbone rotation about phi2 and psi1 (T- and T'-). The ratio of T-/T'-/C+/C- is 47:15:29:9. The orientation of the pendant moieties from the eight-membered ring is more compact for the major trans conformer (T-) than for the extended conformations adopted by T'-, C+, and C-. These conformational preferences are also observed in tetrapeptide and undecapeptide fragments of the human alpha7 subtype of the nAChR that contains the ox-[Cys-Cys] unit. Conformer T- is nearly identical to the conformation seen in the X-ray structure of ox-[Cys(187)-Cys(188)] found in the unliganded AChBP, and is a Type VIII beta-turn.     

Relationship among ligand conformations in solution, in the solid state, and at the Hsp90 binding site: geldanamycin and radicicol

The unknown effects of a receptor's environment on a ligand's conformation presents a difficult challenge in predicting feasible bioactive conformations, particularly if the receptor is ill-defined. The primary hypothesis of this work is that a structure's conformational ensemble in solution presents viable candidates for protein binding. The experimental solution profile can be achieved with the NAMFIS (NMR analysis of molecular flexibility in solution) method, which deconvolutes the average NMR spectrum of small flexible molecules into individual contributing conformations with varying populations. Geldanamycin and radicicol are structurally different macrocycles determined by X-ray crystallography to bind to a common site on the cellular chaperone heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90). Without benefit of a receptor structure, NAMFIS has identified the bioactive conformers of geldanamycin and radicicol in CDCl3 solution with populations of 4% and 21%, respectively. Conversely, docking the set of NAMFIS conformers into the unliganded proteins with GLIDE followed by MM-GBSA scoring reproduces the experimental crystallographic binding poses.     

Exploring the dynamics of calix[4]pyrrole: effect of solvent and fluorine substitution

Molecular dynamics simulations show that calix[4]pyrrole (CP) and octafluorocalix[4]pyrrole (8F-CP) are extremely flexible molecules. CP mainly adopts the 1,3-alternate conformation in all the solvents, although the percentage of alternative conformations increases in polar solvents, especially those with good hydrogen-bonding acceptor properties. However, in the case of 8F-CP, the cone conformation is the most populated in some solvents. Transitions between conformers are common and fast, and both CP and 8F-CP can adopt the cone conformation needed for optimum interaction with anions more easily than would be predicted on the basis of previous gas-phase calculations. Furthermore, the present studies show that when a fluoride anion is specifically placed initially in close proximity to CP and 8F-CP in their respective 1,3-alternate conformations, an extremely fast change to the cone conformation is observed in both cases. The results suggest that preorganization does not represent a major impediment to anion-binding for either CP or 8F-CP, and that ion-induced conformational changes can follow different mechanisms depending on the solvent and the chemical substituents present on the calix[4]pyrrole beta-pyrrolic positions.     

Theory and simulation on the kinetics of protein-ligand binding coupled to conformational change

Conformational change during protein-ligand binding may significantly affect both the binding mechanism and the rate constant. Most earlier theories and simulations treated conformational change as stochastic gating with transition rates between reactive and nonreactive conformations uncoupled to ligand binding. Recently, we introduced a dual-transition-rates model in which the transition rates between reactive and nonreactive conformations depend on the protein-ligand distance [H.-X. Zhou, Biophys. J. 98, L15 (2010)]. Analytical results of that model showed that the apparent binding mechanism switches from conformational selection to induced fit, when the rates of conformational transitions increase from being much slower than the diffusional approach of the protein-ligand pair to being much faster. The conformational-selection limit (k(CS)) and the induced-fit limit (k(IF)) provide lower and upper bounds, respectively, for the binding rate constant. Here we introduce a general model in which the energy surface of the protein in conformational space is coupled to ligand binding, and present a method for calculating the binding rate constant from Brownian dynamics simulations. Analytical and simulation results show that, for an energy surface that switches from favoring the nonreactive conformation while the ligand is away to favoring the reactive conformation while the ligand is near, k(CS) and k(IF) become close and, thus, provide tight bounds to the binding rate constant. This finding has significant mechanistic implications and presents routes for obtaining good estimates of the rate constant at low cost.     

A molecular mechanism of P-loop pliability of Rho-kinase investigated by molecular dynamic simulation

Rho-kinase is a leading player in the regulation of cytoskeletal events involving smooth muscle contraction and neurite growth-cone collapse and retraction, and is a promising drug target in the treatment of both vascular and neurological disorders. Recent crystal structure of Rho-kinase complexed with a small-molecule inhibitor fasudil has revealed structural details of the ATP-binding site, which represents the target site for the inhibitor, and showed that the conserved phenylalanine on the P-loop occupies the pocket, resulting in an increase of protein–ligand contacts. Thus, the P-loop pliability is considered to play an important role in inhibitor binding affinity and specificity. In this study, we carried out a molecular dynamic simulation for Rho-kinase–fasudil complexes with two different P-loop conformations, i.e., the extended and folded conformations, in order to understand the P-loop pliability and dynamics at atomic level. A PKA–fasudil complex was also used for comparison. In the MD simulation, the flip-flop movement of the P-loop conformation starting either from the extended or folded conformation was not able to be observed. However, a significant conformational change in a long loop region covering over the P-loop, and also alteration of ionic interaction-manner of fasudil with acidic residues in the ATP binding site were shown only in the Rho-kinase–fasudil complex with the extended P-loop conformation, while Rho-kinase with the folded P-loop conformation and PKA complexes did not show large fluctuations, suggesting that the Rho-kinase–fasudil complex with the extended P-loop conformation represents a meta-stable state. The information of the P-loop pliability at atomic level obtained in this study could provide valuable clues to designing potent and/or selective inhibitors for Rho-kinase. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.