Crack deflection occurs by constrained microcracking in nacre

For decades, nacre has inspired researchers because of its sophisticated hierarchical structure and remarkable mechanical properties, especially its extreme fracture toughness compared with that of its predominant constituent, \(\hbox {CaCO}_{3}\), in the form of aragonite. Crack deflection has been extensively reported and regarded as the principal toughening mechanism for nacre. In this paper, our attention is focused on crack evolution in nacre under a quasi-static state. We use the notched three-point bending test of dehydrated nacre in situ in a scanning electron microscope (SEM) to monitor the evolution of damage mechanisms ahead of the crack tip. The observations show that the crack deflection actually occurs by constrained microcracking. On the basis of our findings, a crack propagation model is proposed, which will contribute to uncovering the underlying mechanisms of nacre’s fracture toughness and its damage evolution. These investigations would be of great value to the design and synthesis of novel biomimetic materials.     

Discrete fracture modeling of asphalt concrete

A heterogeneous fracture approach is presented for modeling asphalt concrete that is composed of solid inclusions and a viscous matrix, and is subjected to mode-I loading in the fracture test configuration. A heterogeneous fracture model, based on the discrete element method (DEM), is developed to investigate various fracture toughening mechanisms of asphalt materials using a high-resolution image processing technique. An energy-based bilinear cohesive zone model is used to model the crack initiation and propagation of materials, and is implemented as a user-defined model within the discrete element method. Experimental fracture tests are performed to investigate various fracture behavior of asphalt concrete and obtain material input parameters for numerical models. Also, bulk material properties are necessary for each material phase for heterogeneous numerical models; these properties are determined by uniaxial complex modulus tests and indirect tensile strength tests. The main objective of this study is to integrate the experimental tests and numerical models in order to better understand the fracture mechanisms of asphaltic heterogeneous materials. Experimental results and numerical simulations are compared at different test conditions with excellent agreement. The heterogeneous DEM fracture modeling approach has the potential capability to understand various crack mechanisms of quasi-brittle materials.     

Discontinuous crack-bridging model for fracture toughness analysis of nacre

Studying the structure–property relation of biological materials can not only provide insight into the physical mechanisms underlying their superior properties and functions but also benefit the design and fabrication of advanced biomimetic materials. In this paper, we present a microstructure-based fracture mechanics model to investigate the toughening effect due to the crack-bridging mechanism of platelets. Our theoretical analysis demonstrates the crucial contribution of this mechanism to the high toughness of nacre. It is found that the fracture toughness of nacre exhibits distinct dependence on the sizes of platelets, and the optimized ranges for the thickness and length of platelets required to achieve higher fracture toughness are given. In addition, the effects of such factors as the mechanical properties of the organic phase (or interfaces), the effective elastic modulus of nacre, and the stacking pattern of platelets are also examined. Finally, some guidelines for the biomimetic design of novel materials are proposed based on our theoretical analysis.     

An Experimental Investigation of Deformation and Fracture of Nacre–Mother of Pearl

Nacre, also known as mother-of-pearl, is a hard biological composite found in the inside layer of many shells such as oyster or abalone. It is composed of microscopic ceramic tablets arranged in layers and tightly stacked to form a three-dimensional brick wall structure, where the mortar is a thin layer of biopolymers (20–30 nm). Although mostly made of a brittle ceramic, the structure of nacre is so well designed that its toughness is several order of magnitudes larger that the ceramic it is made of. How the microstructure of nacre controls its mechanical performance has been the focus of numerous studies over the past two decades, because such understanding may inspire novel composite designs though biomimetics. This paper presents in detail uniaxial tension experiment performed on miniature nacre specimens. Large inelastic deformations were observed in hydrated condition, which were explained by sliding of the tablets on one another and progressive locking generated by their microscopic waviness. Fracture experiments were also performed, and for the first time the full crack resistance curve was established for nacre. A rising resistance curve is an indication of the robustness and damage tolerance of that material. These measurements are then discussed and correlated with toughening extrinsic mechanisms operating at the microscale. Moreover, specific features of the microstructure and their relevance to associated toughening mechanisms were identified. These features and mechanisms, critical to the robustness of the shell, were finely tuned over millions of years of evolution. Hence, they are expected to serve as a basis to establish guidelines for the design of novel man-made composites.     

Multi-Scale Stereo-Photogrammetry System for Fractographic Analysis Using Scanning Electron Microscopy

Current systems for photogrammetry analysis rely mainly on two-dimensional visualization methods, particularly Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The absence of three-dimensional information prevents the determination of important quantitative features such as local roughness and precludes a deeper comprehension of the failure mechanisms. This paper describes a new multi-scale stereo-photogrammetry system for inspection of fracture surfaces based on SEM images. The system facilitates the reconstruction of complete 3D fracture surfaces and provides interactive visualization of the multi-scale structure, thus offering better insight into fracture surfaces at different levels of detail. In particular, a new method has been developed for geometric reconstruction of a 3D textured mesh from SEM stereo images. The mesh is represented as a 3D geometric multi-resolution structure. The sampled images are represented in the form of a multi-scale hierarchical textured structure. Thus, the global shape of the sample is represented by a 3D mesh, while its micro details are represented by textured data. This multi-scale and hierarchical structure allows interactive multi-scale navigation of the 3D textured mesh. The Regions of Interest (ROI) can actually be inspected interactively at different scales by means of optical or digital zooming. Thus, the digital model can be visualized and the behavior of the 3D material can be analyzed interactively. The contributions of this research include: (a) a new 3D multi-scale reconstruction method for SEM stereo images; (b) a new visualization module for multi-scale inspection, modeling and analysis of micro-structures for a variety of materials; and (c) 3D insight into and better understanding of fracture phenomena for material micro-structures. The feasibility of the proposed method is demonstrated on samples of different materials, and a performance analysis is applied on the resulting multi-scale model. The roughness calculation was verified against roughness calculation applied to the optical profilometer.     

Multi-scale experimental analysis of rate dependent metal–elastomer interface mechanics

A remarkable high fracture toughness is sometimes observed for interfaces between materials with a large elastic mismatch, which is reported to be caused by the fibrillar microstructure appearing in the fracture process zone. In this work, this fibrillation mechanism is investigated further to investigate how this mechanism is dissipating energy. For that purpose, thermoplastic urethane (TPU)-copper interfaces are delaminated at various rates in a peel test experimental setup. The fracture process zone is visualized in situ at the meso-scale using optical microscopy and at the micro-scale using Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy (ESEM). It is shown that the geometry of the fracture process zone is insensitive to the delamination rate, while the interface traction scales logarithmically with the rate. This research has revealed that, the interface roughness is shown to be pivotal in initiating the fibrillation delamination process, which facilitates the high fracture toughness. The multi-scale experimental approach identified two mechanisms responsible for this high fracture toughness. Namely, the viscous dissipation of the TPU at the high strain levels occurring in the fibrils and the loss of stored elastic energy which is disjointed from the propagation due to the size of the process zone.     

矿物凸起在贝壳珍珠母界面中摩擦耗能机理的研究

论文建立了珍珠母矿物质板相对滑移时表面矿物凸起相互攀爬摩擦的理论模型,得到了界面等效摩擦性能可以表示为两个无量纲参数的函数:凸起高宽比α=A/l、凸起高度与板厚度比β=A/D.理论预测与有限元模拟结果对比,两者符合良好,验证了理论模型的有效性.通过理论和计算分析,得到以下结论:(1)矿物质板表面凸起的存在对板间界面摩擦...     

On the mechanics of mother-of-pearl: A key feature in the material hierarchical structure

Mother-of-pearl, also known as nacre, is the iridescent material which forms the inner layer of seashells from gastropods and bivalves. It is mostly made of microscopic ceramic tablets densely packed and bonded together by a thin layer of biopolymer. The hierarchical microstructure of this biological material is the result of millions of years of evolution, and it is so well organized that its strength and toughness are far superior to the ceramic it is made of. In this work the structure of nacre is described over several length scales. The tablets were found to have wavy surfaces, which were observed and quantified using various experimental techniques. Tensile and shear tests performed on small samples revealed that nacre can withstand relatively large inelastic strains and exhibits strain hardening. In this article we argue that the inelastic mechanism responsible for this behavior is sliding of the tablets on one another accompanied by transverse expansion in the direction perpendicular to the tablet planes. Three dimensional representative volume elements, based on the identified nacre microstructure and incorporating cohesive elements with a constitutive response consistent with the interface material and nanoscale features were numerically analyzed. The simulations revealed that even in the absence of nanoscale hardening mechanism at the interfaces, the microscale waviness of the tablets could generate strain hardening, thereby spreading the inelastic deformation and suppressing damage localization leading to material instability. The formation of large regions of inelastic deformations around cracks and defects in nacre are believed to be an important contribution to its toughness. In addition, it was shown that the tablet junctions (vertical junctions between tablets) strengthen the microstructure but do not contribute to the overall material hardening. Statistical variations within the microstructure were found to be beneficial to hardening and to the overall mechanical stability of nacre. These results provide new insights into the microstructural features that make nacre tough and damage tolerant. Based on these findings, some design guidelines for composites mimicking nacre are proposed.     

多尺度复合材料力学研究进展

多尺度复合材料力学是运用多尺度分析思想研究空间分布非均匀材料力学性能的学科, 近年来,多 组分、多层级先进材料的蓬勃发展和微纳米实验观测手段的不断进步,有力地推动了该学科的研究,论文围绕非均 匀材料力学性能的多尺度分析,首先从微纳米尺度到宏观尺度综述了常用的理论分析方法;接着分别针对非均匀 连续介质和离散体系介绍了常用的多尺度计算模拟方法;然后结合本课题组在纳米复合材料、抗冲击吸能材料、随 机网络材料和多层级自相似材料等方面的研究工作,举例说明了如何综合运用多种方法对各种复杂材料系统进行 多尺度分析;最后,展望了该领域还需进一步发展和完善的若干方向。     

In situ 3D Synchrotron Laminography Assessment of Edge Fracture in Dual-Phase Steels: Quantitative and Numerical Analysis

The mechanical performance of automotive structures made of advanced high strength steels (AHSS) is often seen reduced by the presence of cut edges. An attempt is made to assess and quantify the initial damage state and the damage evolution during mechanical testing of a punched edge and a machined edge via a recently developed 3D imaging technique called synchrotron radiation computed laminography. This technique allows us to observe damage in regions of interest in thin sheet-like objects at micrometer resolution. In terms of new experimental mechanics, steel sheets having sizes and mechanical boundary conditions of engineering relevance can be tested for the first time with in situ 3D damage observation and quantification. It is found for the investigated DP600 steel that the fracture zone of the punched edge is rough and that needle-shape voids at the surface and in the bulk follow ferrite-martensite flow lines. During mechanical in situ testing the needle voids grow from the fracture zone surface and coalesce with the sheared zone. In contrast, during in situ mechanical testing of a machined edge the damage starts away from the edge (～800μm) where substantial necking has occurred. Three-dimensional image analysis was performed to quantify the initial damage and its evolution. These data can be used as input and validation data for micromechanical damage models. To interpret the experimental findings in terms of mechanical fields, combined surface digital image correlation and 3D finite element analysis were carried out using an elasto-plastic constitutive law of the investigated DP steel. The stress triaxiality and the accumulated plastic strain were calculated in order to understand the influence of the edge profile and the hardening of the cutting-affected zone on the mechanical fields.     

Multi-scale cohesive laws in hierarchical materials

Motivated by the observations that natural materials such as bone, shell, tendon and the attachment system of gecko exhibit multi-scale hierarchical structures, this paper aims to develop a better understanding of the effects of structural hierarchy on flaw insensibility of materials from the viewpoint of multi-scale cohesive laws. We consider two idealized, self-similar models of hierarchical materials, one mimicking gecko’s attachment system and the other mimicking the mineral–protein composite structure of bone, to demonstrate that structural hierarchy leads to multi-scale cohesive laws which can be designed from bottom up to enable flaw tolerance from nanoscale to macroscopic length scales.     

Simulation of elastic–plastic deformation and fracture of materials at micro-, meso- and macrolevels

Physical Mesomechanics of materials is a new branch of mechanics that focuses attention on a mesovolume of loaded material. It is a macro particle in classical continuum mechanics and its behavior under load is equivalent to the bulk. The structural elements for a particular application requires specific models while the computational techniques have to be developed.These research groups have been studying heterogeneous materials behavior at the mesolevel under different types of loading. Hierarchical models are developed to study deformation and fracture of solids at the micro- meso- and macrolevels. Taken into account are the influence of micro- and mesostructure of loaded material in relation to its macro behavior.This work focuses on unifying the method of approach to be supported by tests and calculations. In particular, deformation and fracture mechanisms at the micro-, meso- and macrolevels are examined for metals and composites.     

Residual fracture energy of cement paste, mortar and concrete subject to high temperature

Quantifying high temperature damage is an issue that can hardly be dealt with experimentally because of the complexity of the loading control, of temperature and of moisture. The experimental investigation was carried out. The measurement of the mechanical characteristics (fracture energy, tensile strength, elastic modulus and thermal damage parameter) of five cementitious materials, cement paste, mortar, ordinary concrete and two HPC concretes were performed by three-point bending tests after heating/cooling cycles at 120, 250 and 400 °C. The tests showed that the cementitious materials behave almost identical when the fracture energy G_f is considered as a function of maximum temperature. The thermal damage due to heating from 120 to 400 °C increases the fracture energy by 50% with the reference tests at room temperature. A more tortuous crack surface is one reasonable explanation for the significant increase in G_f. It is demonstrated that the temperature exposure makes all cementitious materials tested significantly more ductile and less resistant.     

The strength limit in a bio-inspired metallic nanocomposite

Large-scale molecular dynamics simulations are performed to investigate the plastic deformation behavior of a bio-inspired metallic nanocomposite which consists of hard nanosized Ni platelets embedded in a soft Al matrix. The investigation is restricted to an idealized nanocomposite structure with regular platelet distributions in a quasi-two-dimensional geometry under quasi-static loading conditions. This restriction enables us to study size dependent material properties over a wide range of length scales with a fully atomistic resolution of the material and thus without any a priori assumptions of the deformation processes. The simulation results are analyzed with respect to the prevailing deformation mechanisms and their influence on the mechanical properties of the nanocomposite with various geometrical variations. It is found that interfacial sliding contributes significantly to the plastic deformation despite a strong bonding across the interface. Critical for the strength of the nanocomposite is the geometric confinement of dislocation processes in the plastic phase, which strongly depends on the length scale and the morphology of the nanostructure. However, for the smallest structural scales, the softening caused by interfacial sliding prevails, giving rise to a maximum strength.     

Reprint of “Multi-scale cohesive laws in hierarchical materials” [In. J. Solids Struct. 44 (2007) 8177–8193]

Motivated by the observations that natural materials such as bone, shell, tendon and the attachment system of gecko exhibit multi-scale hierarchical structures, this paper aims to develop a better understanding of the effects of structural hierarchy on flaw insensibility of materials from the viewpoint of multi-scale cohesive laws. We consider two idealized, self-similar models of hierarchical materials, one mimicking gecko’s attachment system and the other mimicking the mineral–protein composite structure of bone, to demonstrate that structural hierarchy leads to multi-scale cohesive laws which can be designed from bottom up to enable flaw tolerance from nanoscale to macroscopic length scales.     

准脆性材料断裂过程区中的圆饼微裂纹损伤计算

准脆性工程材料及结构在外力作用下，不仅引起内部缺陷变化和微裂纹的出现及发展，且使得其结构承载能力降低或性能劣化．在其材料失效过程中常存在裂缝与断裂损伤过程区．为研究材料细观缺陷或微裂纹与宏观破坏的规律，通过细观力学方法，对于代表性体积单元RVE中的圆饼型微裂纹的尺寸与密度变化，探讨其宏观断裂过程区力学参量与损伤之间的量化关系．借助宏观断裂过程区的黏聚裂纹模型，将损伤单元RVE嵌入到宏观裂缝端部的断裂过程区中，对其进行联接细观损伤到宏观破坏的力学多尺度研究．文中也通过实验数据，对其理论计算结果进行了算例的讨论与分析．     

An experimental study of a bio-inspired corrugated airfoil for micro air vehicle applications

An experimental study was conducted to investigate the aerodynamic characteristics of a bio-inspired corrugated airfoil compared with a smooth-surfaced airfoil and a flat plate at the chord Reynolds number of Re _C  = 58,000–125,000 to explore the potential applications of such bio-inspired corrugated airfoils for micro air vehicle designs. In addition to measuring the aerodynamic lift and drag forces acting on the tested airfoils, a digital particle image velocimetry system was used to conduct detailed flowfield measurements to quantify the transient behavior of vortex and turbulent flow structures around the airfoils. The measurement result revealed clearly that the corrugated airfoil has better performance over the smooth-surfaced airfoil and the flat plate in providing higher lift and preventing large-scale flow separation and airfoil stall at low Reynolds numbers (Re _C  < 100,000). While aerodynamic performance of the smooth-surfaced airfoil and the flat plate would vary considerably with the changing of the chord Reynolds numbers, the aerodynamic performance of the corrugated airfoil was found to be almost insensitive to the Reynolds numbers. The detailed flow field measurements were correlated with the aerodynamic force measurement data to elucidate underlying physics to improve our understanding about how and why the corrugation feature found in dragonfly wings holds aerodynamic advantages for low Reynolds number flight applications.     

Size-dependent heterogeneity benefits the mechanical performance of bone

Heterogeneity of biological materials, such as bone, tooth, and mollusc shells, plays a key role in determining their mechanical performance (e.g. the strength, damage tolerance, etc.). Here, we quantify heterogeneities in elasticity and inelasticity of bovine cortical bone between 100 nm and a few microns and identify a characteristic length scale (λ_c) of approximately 200 nm. Below λ_c the mechanical heterogeneity of bone is pronounced and exhibits a strong nonlinear size-dependence, while above λ_c the heterogeneity is much less. Such size-dependent heterogeneity benefits the mechanical performance of bone since it not only promotes the energy dissipation at nanoscale, but also suppresses heterogeneity-induced stress concentration and strain localization at larger length scales. This is one of the possible mechanisms functioning at multiple length scales that make bone a well-designed tough natural material. Utilizing experimentally measured data, systematic computational simulations were carried out, showing that the heterogeneity in inelasticity, rather than elasticity, plays a dominant role in promoting energy dissipation during deformation. Possible parameters that determine the inelasticity heterogeneity (e.g. mean value and standard deviation of heterogeneous yield stress) and therefore affect energy dissipation are investigated under typical deformation modes of bone. The analysis presented suggests that there exists an optimum ratio of macroscopic strength to elastic modulus for improving energy dissipation under tension. All these findings are of great value to the design and synthesis of improved bio-inspired composites.     

Mechanical properties of nanostructure of biological materials

Natural biological materials such as bone, teeth and nacre are nanocomposites of protein and mineral with superior strength. It is quite a marvel that nature produces hard and tough materials out of protein as soft as human skin and mineral as brittle as classroom chalk. What are the secrets of nature? Can we learn from this to produce bio-inspired materials in the laboratory? These questions have motivated us to investigate the mechanics of protein-mineral nanocomposite structure. Large aspect ratios and a staggered alignment of mineral platelets are found to be the key factors contributing to the large stiffness of biomaterials. A tension-shear chain (TSC) model of biological nanostructure reveals that the strength of biomaterials hinges upon optimizing the tensile strength of the mineral crystals. As the size of the mineral crystals is reduced to nanoscale, they become insensitive to flaws with strength approaching the theoretical strength of atomic bonds. The optimized tensile strength of mineral crystals thus allows a large amount of fracture energy to be dissipated in protein via shear deformation and consequently enhances the fracture toughness of biocomposites. We derive viscoelastic properties of the protein-mineral nanostructure and show that the toughness of biocomposite can be further enhanced by the viscoelastic properties of protein.