Terahertz emission from square wells in a longitudinal electric field

Terahertz emission accompanying heating of two-dimensional electrons by a strong electric field applied along size-quantized GaAs/AlGaAs layers is observed and investigated. The emission is due to indirect optical transitions of hot electrons in the bottom size-quantization band. The experimentally obtained emission spectra are compared with the spectra calculated taking into account scattering of electrons by optical phonons, impurities, and interfacial roughness and electron-electron scattering. Satisfactory agreement is obtained. The temperature of the hot electrons is determined from a comparison of the spectra. Pis’ma Zh. éksp. Teor. Fiz. 67, No. 7, 507–511 (10 April 1998)     

Intraband coherence of Bloch oscillations after momentum scattering

Resonantly excited secondary emission of light (RSE) in GaAs/AlGaAs superlattices gives a direct proof for the stability of coherent Bloch dynamics beyond the optical coherent regime. The polarization analysis of the RSE signal confirms its nonlinear origin resulting from coherent intraband density dynamics. It is shown that the intraband coherence of Bloch oscillations (BO) persists after momentum scattering of the photoexcited states. A variation of emission angle and excitation density allows to distinguish two momentum scattering processes contributing to the RSE. A static disorder mediated contribution is restricted to directions near the reflection direction. A further contribution of carrier induced momentum scattering is resolved in directions well separated from diffraction directions. The dependence of the RSE as a function of an external electric field demonstrates an enhancement of momentum scattering with increasing field. PACS 78.47.+p; 63.20Kr; 71.35.-y.     

Hot electron light-emitting semiconductor heterostructure device--type 2

A novel hot electron light-emitting device is proposed which operates by the application of longitudinal electric field, i.e. in the plane of the GaAs quantum wells, which are placed next to the junction plane of an n-Ga_1-xAl_xAs--p-GaAs heterostructure. Application of high electric fields results in the transfer of hot electrons via tunnelling and thermionic emission, from the quantum well in the depletion region, into the GaAs inversion layer. The hot holes in the p-GaAs, initially away from the junction, then diffuse towards the junction plane to recombine with the excess hot electrons, giving rise to electroluminescence (EL) which is representative of the GaAs band-to-band emission. As the applied field is increased, a high-energy tail in the EL spectrum develops, and, photons with energies greater than the el-hhl transition energy in the quantum well are absorbed and re-emitted by the quantum well. Thus a second peak develops in the EL spectra which becomes stronger with increasing applied electric field. The device has been theoretically modelled, by solving Schrodinger and Poisson's equations self-consistently, to understand the processes leading to EL emission in the various channels.     

Probability of electron emission in photoemission from doped semiconductor

Electron motion is investigated in a strong-field region —in the region of bending of the band close to the surface of a semiconductor. In this region there is a change in the electron distribution function under the action of the electric field and interaction mechanisms leading to energy loss of the hot electrons. The main characteristics of the external photoeffect are determined by the energy lost by the electron in the region of band bending and the size of the barrier at the semiconductor-vacuum interface. The electron-emission probability from a crystal containing a space-charge region is determined from the solution of the Boltzmann kinetic equation. The energy dependence of the energy scattering length of the hot electrons is taken into account in the calculation. The calculation is made for photoemission from GaAs in conditions when the interaction with polar optical phonons is the most effective energy-scattering mechanism. An expression is obtained for the energy distribution function of the emitted electrons for the case of strong electric fields. The position of the distribution-function maximum depends on the electric field and the effective interaction constant with phonons. The current and quantum yield of the photoeffect are calculated.Translated from Izvestiya Vysshikh Uchebnykh Zavedenii, Fizika, No. 10, pp. 81–87, October, 1978.In conclusion, it remains to extend profound thanks to V. L. Bonch-Bruevich for Ms constant interest in the work.     

Compton profiles of electron momentum distribution inβ-Ga

We report for the first time the Compton profiles of electron momentum distribution inβ-gallium calculated along the crystallographic directions (100), (110) and (111). The conduction electron states for this purpose are determined in the energy band calculations using model potential. The core states, on the other hand, are represented each by a single tight-binding function. The results show that the Compton profiles are nearly isotropic with very little directional dependence, which is suggestive of a free-electron-like distribution of the conduction electrons in this system. The latter conclusion is in close confirmity with similar conclusions drawn in augmented plane wave (APW) calculation of energy bands and the derived Knight-shift results inβ-Ga.     

Hot electron energy and momentum relaxation in GaAs/AlAs and GaAs/Ga1-xAlxAs multiple quantum wells

Experimental results on high electric field longitudinal transport in GaAs/AlAs and GaAs/Ga_1-xAl_xAs multiple quantum wells (MQW) are presented and compared with the prediction of a dielectric continuum model. We draw from our experiments the following four conclusions.(i) In GaAs/Ga_1-xAl_xAs systems the dominant energy and momentum relaxation mechanism is through scattering with GaAs -modes.(ii) However, in GaAs/AlAs systems the AlAs interface mode is dominant in relaxing the energy and momentum of the quantum well electrons.(iii) The hot electron momentum relaxation as obtained from the high-field drift velocity experiments is strongly affected by the production of hot phonons as expected from a model involving a non-drifting hot phonon distribution.(iv) The importance of the AlAs interface mode in GaAs/Ga_1-xAl_xAs MQW is not the result of the intrinsic scattering rate but related to its shorter lifetime, compared to GaAs modes.     

Luminescence from hot electrons relaxing by LO phonon emission in p-GaAs and GaAs doping superlattices

Laser excited hot electrons in GaAs relax by LO phonon emission within a few hundred femtoseconds, leading to a series of peaks in the distribution of hot electrons in the conduction band, which we observe in luminescence. We find that the luminescence peaks shift according to the acceptor binding energy for C?, Ge?, Zn?, and Be-p-doped GaAs layers grown by MBE and LPE. Thus we prove that recombination is between hot electrons and neutral acceptors. The series of peaks due to electrons from the heavy hole band agree well with $\text{k}\text{.}\text{p}$ band structure, while peaks due to those from light holes are about 15 meV lower than expected from the band structure. We show that the discrepancy is not due to heating or surface fields. The peak separation in the luminescence ladder is about 6% larger than the LO energy suggesting emission of renormalised LO phonons. We find thermalisation by LO emission also in GaAs nipi doping superlattices. In nipi crystals the emission is shifted to higher energies (by 12 meV for light and by 6 meV for heavy holes) due to a change in band structure caused by the space charge fields.     

Optical polarization of nuclei and ODNMR in GaAs/AlGaAs quantum wells

Optical orientation of electrons was used to polarize the crystal lattice nuclei in quantum-size heterostructures and to study the effect of the conduction band spin splitting on the spin states of quasi-two-dimensional (2D) electrons drifting in an external electric field. High (～1%) nuclear polarization was registered using polarized luminescence and ODNMR in single GaAs/AlGaAs quantum wells. Measurement was made of the hyperfine interaction fields created by polarized nuclei on electrons and by electrons on nuclei. The spin-lattice relaxation of nuclei on the non-degenerate 2D electron gas was calculated. A comparison of the theoretical and experimental longitudinal relaxation times permitted the conclusion that the localized charge carriers are responsible for nuclear polarization in quantum wells in the temperature range of 2–77 K. A new effect has been studied, i.e. induction of an effective magnetic field acting on 2D electron spins when electrons drift in an external electric field in the quantum well plane. This effective field B_eff is due to the spin splitting of the conduction band of 2D electrons. The paper discusses possible registration of an ODNMR signal when the field B_eff is modulated by an electric current during optical orientation.     

Electric-field-induced impact ionization of excitons in GaN and GaN/AlGaN quantum wells

Impact ionization of exciton states in epitaxial GaN films and GaN/AlGaN quantum-well structures was studied. The study was done using an optical method based on the observation of exciton photoluminescence quenching under application of an electric field. It was established that electron scattering on impurities dominates over that from acoustic phonons in electron relaxation in energy and momentum. The mean free path of the hot electrons was estimated. The hot-electron mean free path in GaN/AlGaN quantum wells was found to be an order of magnitude larger than that in epitaxial GaN films, which is due to the electron scattering probability being lower in the two-dimensional case.     

Smith Purcell effect in GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructures

We report a new experimental technique to study the form of the hot electron distribution function in GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructures. A weak periodic surface potential induces Smith-Purcell-FIR-radiation of the electric field driven hot electrons in the 2-dimensional electron gas directly reflecting their velocity distribution. The FIR- radiation is detected by a magnetic field tuned InSb-detector. In samples with very low electron concentration and high mobility the emission spectra show a significant shift to higher energies and develop a steep high energy slope with increasing electric field when we use the geometry with grating vector q directed parallel to the electric field (q ∥ E). In the geometry q ⊥ E smooth decays are observed at lower energies. Comparison of the results with theory gives experimental evidence of a non-equilibrium shape of the distribution caused by the onset of LO-Phonon emission. In addition, the hot electron mean free path of the heated distribution is derived by investigating the experimental emission spectra as a function of the grating period length. The influence of a limited hot electron mean free path on the spectral width is described in terms of a Fourier-analysis of the interaction potential. In drift direction a mean free path of λ = 200 nm is obtained, whereas the mean free path is smaller in the direction perpendicular to the drift direction.     

DX<Superscript>−</Superscript> center formation in planar-doped GaAs:Si in strong electric fields

The kinetics of current decay and partial restoration in planar doped GaAs:Si due to the formation of DX^? centers in strong electric fields has been experimentally studied. The existence of thresholds with respect to the field strength and donor concentration is explained. A model of the DX^? center formation is proposed, which is based on the notions about variation of the depth and width of a potential well created by planar doping, caused by the redistribution of hot electrons between quantum confinement subbands. As a result, the energy level of DX^? centers, which is situated above the potential well depth in the absence of strong field, decreases and falls within the potential well. This makes possible the DX^? center formation, provided that hot electrons, occupying the resonance electron levels in the conduction band, simultaneously excite local vibrational modes.     

Cyclotron resonance study of conduction electrons in n-type indium antimonide under a strong magnetic field—II: Hot electrons

A system of hot electrons in the n-InSb under the application of a strong magnetic field has been studied by far IR cyclotron resonance. A three band model and an energy independent scattering time were assumed in analyzing the line shape variation with electric field applied either parallel or perpendicular to the magnetic field. Two kinds of electron temperature, inter- and intra-subband, were introduced to describe the electron distribution in energy space. The electron distribution function was found to deviate from an essentially Maxwellian form in the manner predicted by Yamada and Kurosawa. A remarkable difference exists between the two geometries: E∥H and E⊥U. A brief survey of cyclotron emission, and the reverse process of hot electron cyclotron absorption, is summarized at the end as an addendum.     

Hot electron photoluminescence in GaAs crystals

The spectrum and the linear polarization of photoluminescence of hot electrons in GaAs crystals were investigated. Oscillations in the hot photoluminescence (HPL) spectrum due to the subsequent emission of LO-phonons were observed. The study of HPL depolarization in an external magnetic field yielded the scattering time due to the emission of a LO-phonon by a hot electron in the Γ-valley (τ_?0 = 1 × 10^?13 sec) as well as the Γ?L intervalley scattering time. The radiative recombination of hot electrons created in the central Γ-valley via the subsidiary L-valley was observed. The distribution function of hot electrons in a wide energy range was evaluated from the spectra.     

Rashba effect in the graphene/ni(111) system

We report on angle-resolved photoemission studies of the electronic pi states of high-quality epitaxial graphene layers on a Ni(111) surface. In this system the electron binding energy of the pi states shows a strong dependence on the magnetization reversal of the Ni film. The observed extraordinarily large energy shift up to 225 meV of the graphene-derived pi band peak position for opposite magnetization directions is attributed to a manifestation of the Rashba interaction between spin-polarized electrons in the pi band and the large effective electric field at the graphene/Ni interface. Our findings show that an electron spin in the graphene layer can be manipulated in a controlled way and have important implications for graphene-based spintronic devices.     

Photoinduced charge redistribution and its influence on excitonic states in Zn(Cd)Se/ZnMgSSe/GaAs quantum-well heterostructures

The photoinduced charge redistribution in Zn(Cd)Se/ZnMgSSe/GaAs quantum-well heterostructures under different conditions of optical excitation has been investigated using scanning probe microscopy and optical spectroscopy in the temperature range from 5 to 300 K. Excitation of the samples by radiation with a photon energy greater than the band gap of Zn(Cd)Se leads to the accumulation of electrons in quantum wells, which is detected using scanning spreading resistance microscopy. For moderate excitation densities (up to 25 W/cm²) and at temperatures ranging from 80 to 100 K, the density of a quasi-two-dimensional electron gas formed in quantum wells is several orders of magnitude higher than the density of electron-hole pairs generated by the excitation radiation. The excess electron concentration in the quantum well leads to a broadening of the exciton resonances and to an increase in the relative intensity of the donor-bound exciton emission line and also determines the increase in the luminescence quantum yield with increasing excitation intensity. An additional illumination with a photon energy less than the band gap of Zn(Cd)Se decreases the concentration of excess electrons in quantum wells. The influence of the additional illumination is observed at a temperature of approximately 100 K and almost completely suppressed at 5 K. The obtained results are explained in terms of the formation of a potential barrier for electrons at the ZnMgSSe/GaAs interface and by the specific features of recombination processes in the electron-hole system containing impurity centers with different charge states.     

Temperature dependent energy relaxation time in AlGaN/AlN/GaN heterostructures

The two-dimensional (2D) electron energy relaxation in Al_0.25Ga_0.75N/AlN/GaN heterostructures was investigated experimentally by using two experimental techniques; Shubnikov-de Haas (SdH) effect and classical Hall Effect. The electron temperature (T_e) of hot electrons was obtained from the lattice temperature (T_L) and the applied electric field dependencies of the amplitude of SdH oscillations and Hall mobility. The experimental results for the electron temperature dependence of power loss are also compared with the current theoretical models for power loss in 2D semiconductors. The power loss that was determined from the SdH measurements indicates that the energy relaxation of electrons is due to acoustic phonon emission via unscreened piezoelectric interaction. In addition, the power loss from the electrons obtained from Hall mobility for electron temperatures in the range T_e > 100 K is associated with optical phonon emission. The temperature dependent energy relaxation time in Al_0.25Ga_0.75N/AlN/GaN heterostructures that was determined from the power loss data indicates that hot electrons relax spontaneously with MHz to THz emission with increasing temperatures.     

Influence of an electric field on photostimulated states in NH4BPh4 films

The influence of an electric field on stable photostimulated triplet states of NH₄BPh₄ at a temperature of 77 K have been studied by EPR spectroscopy. It has been established that, on exposure to UV radiation, electron capture by traps in the band gaps takes place with formation of triplet state. After application of an electric field, triplet states are destructed because, with an increase in the applied voltage, a gradual inclination of energy bands takes place and electrons found in traps on different energy levels are released. The assumption that captured electrons are found in traps on different energy levels is confirmed by earlier studies of thermoluminescence spectra.     

Photoexcitation in two-dimensional topological insulators

One of the most fascinating challenges in Physics is the realization of an electron-based counterpart of quantum optics, which requires the capability to generate and control single electron wave packets. The edge states of quantum spin Hall (QSH) systems, i.e., two-dimensional (2D) topological insulators realized in HgTe/CdTe and InAs/GaSb quantum wells, may turn the tide in the field, as they do not require the magnetic field that limits the implementations based on quantum Hall effect. However, the band structure of these topological states, described by a massless Dirac fermion Hamiltonian, prevents electron photoexcitation via the customary vertical electric dipole transitions of conventional optoelectronics. So far, proposals to overcome this problem are based on magnetic dipole transitions induced via Zeeman coupling by circularly polarised radiation, and are limited by the g-factor. Alternatively, optical transitions can be induced from the edge states to the bulk states, which are not topologically protected though.Here we show that an electric pulse, localized in space and/or time and applied at a QSH edge, can photoexcite electron wavepackets by intra-branch electrical transitions, without invoking the bulk states or the Zeeman coupling. Such wavepackets are spin-polarised and propagate in opposite directions, with a density profile that is independent of the initial equilibrium temperature and that does not exhibit dispersion, as a result of the linearity of the spectrum and of the chiral anomaly characterising massless Dirac electrons. We also investigate the photoexcited energy distribution and show how, under appropriate circumstances, minimal excitations (Levitons) are generated. Furthermore, we show that the presence of a Rashba spin–orbit coupling can be exploited to tailor the shape of photoexcited wavepackets. Possible experimental realizations are also discussed.     

High field transport properties in a GaN/AlGaN heterostructure

The drift velocity, electron temperature, electron energy and momentum loss rates of a two-dimensional electron gas are calculated in a GaN/AlGaN heterojunction (HJ) at high electric fields employing the energy and momentum balance technique, assuming the drifted Fermi–Dirac (F–D) distribution function for electrons. Besides the conventional scattering mechanisms, roughness induced new scattering mechanisms such as misfit piezoelectric and misfit deformation potential scatterings are considered in momentum relaxation. Energy loss rates due to acoustic phonons and polar optical phonon scattering with hot phonon effect are considered. The calculated drift velocity, electron temperature and energy loss rate are compared with the experimental data and a good agreement is obtained. The hot phonon effect is found to reduce the drift velocity, energy and momentum loss rates, whereas it enhances the electron temperature. Also the effect of using drifted F–D distribution, due to high carrier density in GaN/AlGaN HJs, contrary to the drifted Maxwellian distribution function used in the earlier calculations, is brought out.     

UV-photoemission measurements on erbium and samarium

Photoemission measurements have been made on samarium and erbium in the photon energy range 4 to 21 eV. The photoelectron energy distributions are dominated by electron emission from valence band states whereas emission from 4f-states is unimportant. The width and energy of the occupied and unoccupied 5d-bands has been determined as well as the energy relative to the Fermi level of the bottom of the valence band. A model for the unscattered yield is presented allowing a determination of the hot electron scattering length for some rare-earths using available optical and photoemission data.