多相催化时空演变的全生命周期表征策略

可持续发展的化学工业需要新型高效的催化材料和催化过程,尤其需要生态友好、本质安全的新催化过程,其本质是提高合适反应器内催化剂的选择性、活性和稳定性.因此,通过原位技术实时表征反应状态下的催化剂结构并同步测试催化性能,有助于全面研究真实反应条件下催化剂及其表面物种随时间的演变过程,深入理解催化剂构效关系的本质,为开发新一代催化技术提供科学依据.迄今,在实际催化体系中实现催化剂从活化、运行到失活的全生命周期表征仍存在巨大挑战.本文综述了分子筛、金属、金属氧化物三类典型催化剂在甲醇制烯烃、费托合成、丙烷脱氢等催化反应中的全生命周期时空演变,分析了所采用的表征研究策略,以期为新型工业催化的应用基础研究提供启示.据文献报道,甲醇制烯烃反应案例主要利用了原位紫外-可见光谱和固态核磁共振光谱等获得SAPO-34分子筛催化剂从诱导期、自催化期到失活期的表面烃池物种性质和动态演变;费托合成反应案例主要利用了同步辐射X射线衍射计算机断层扫描和X射线吸收光谱等技术研究单个毫米级Co/γ-Al2O3催化剂颗粒在还原条件和费托合成条件下的催化剂结构演变;丙烷脱氢反应案例主要结合原位的紫外-可见和拉曼光纤探头分析了CrOx/Al2O3催化剂在700 ml固定床反应器中不同床层积炭的时空演变.这些研究案例表明,因受限于表征仪器的时空分辨率和适用工况,多数重要的催化反应尚未完全实现工业条件下的全生命周期表征;但通过合理简化非关键变量,可以获得近似工业条件下的多相催化时空演变规律,这些原位表征研究拓展了多相催化的新认识新发现.着眼未来,近似工业反应条件的原位表征、多尺度的原位表征装置设计、反应条件下的计算模拟等策略将在催化研发中发挥重要作用.这些全生命周期表征策略反映了催化研究范式的转变,但将其应用于工业实践仍面临许多科学和工程的挑战.从实际应用角度看,还需综合考虑原位表征技术的成本、安全性和准确性,重视催化剂颗粒及反应器尺度的原位表征,不断推进新型催化剂的研发.     

Isobutane alkylation over solid acid catalysts under supercritical conditions

Solid catalyzed isobutane alkylation has been investigated for decades, but it has not yet been applied in any commercial uses because of the rapid deactivation of the catalyst. Here, the alkylation reaction has been studied under supercritical conditions using metal-promoted and unpromoted sulfated zirconia as catalysts. The catalytic activity at the supercritical condition of 5.0 MPa, 423K was significantly higher than at lower reaction pressure conditions and the deactivation rate was clearly reduced, independent on the catalyst. Iron- and manganese-promoted sulfated zirconia (SFMZ) showed higher activities under all conditions than unpromoted sulfated zirconia (SZ).     

Hysteresis phenomena in sulfur dioxide oxidation over supported vanadium catalysts

Catalyst deactivation and hysteresis behavior in industrial SO₂-oxidation catalysts have been studied in the temperature region 350–480°C by combined in situ EPR spectroscopy and catalytic activity measurements. The feed gas compositions simulated sulfuric acid synthesis gas and wet/dry deNO_x'ed flue gas. The vanadium (IV) compound K₄(VO)₃(SO₄)₅ precipitated during all the investigated conditions hence causing catalyst deactivation. Hysteresis behavior of both the catalytic activity and the V(IV) content was observed during reheating.     

The kinetics of processes of formation of complex catalysts and of the polymerization of α-olefins under nonstationary conditions

By using a model of the polymerization process, taking into account the reaction of formation and deactivation of active centers with respect to mono- and bimolecular mechanisms, equations have been obtained which describe the kinetics of the polymerization of -olefins under nonstationary conditions. The possible effect of the polymerization process on the catalyst reaction has been considered.     

基于改性Ni/γ-Al_2O_3催化剂的电催化甲烷水蒸气重整的研究

提出了电催化作用下甲烷水蒸气催化重整的新工艺。基于工业常规Ni基催化剂,采用等体积浸渍法,以Ni为活性组分,γ-Al_2O_3为载体,MgO、CaO为助剂,制备了Ni/γ-Al_2O_3、Ni-MgO/γ-Al_2O_3和Ni-CaO/γ-Al_2O_3催化剂,考察了电流强度、重整温度、水蒸气与甲烷的物质的量比(水碳比,S/C)对不同催化剂的CH_4转化率、H_2产率、CO选择性和催化剂稳定性的影响。结果表明,电催化工艺有着良好的普适性,电流的引入能够提升CH_4转化率、增加H_2产率,尤其在低温下电流的促进作用显著。在三种催化剂中,Ni-CaO/γ-Al_2O_3催化效果最佳,在电流为4.5 A、S/C为3、重整温度为700℃时,CH_4转化率就高达95%以上。稳定性测试表明,电流的通入还能显著提高催化剂的稳定性,延缓催化剂的积炭失活。通过对催化剂的分析表征,发现电流的通入提升了催化剂中NiO的还原程度,同时抑制了反应过程中NiC_x向石墨炭的转化,从而可延缓催化剂因积炭覆盖反应活性位点而造成的失活。     

Transformation of cyclohexene on palladium catalysts: activity and deactivation

The transformation of cyclohexene on palladium catalysts can take place via two competitive processes: disproportionation and dehydrogenation. A study conducted over a broad temperature range revealed that disproportionation prevails at low temperatures and dehydrogenation at high temperatures. When the reaction develops under continuous-flow conditions (viz. in a tubular reactor connected online to a mass spectrometer), a transition temperature exists for each catalyst above which hydrogen is formed in detectable amounts. Metal catalysts are strongly deactivated during the transformation of cyclohexene. This led us to examine the process by performing thermal programmed experiments, desorptions and thermal oxidations, which showed catalyst deactivation in this process to be the result of surface adsorption of benzene and carbon deposition. Finally, desorption and subsequent oxidation were found to effectively regenerate the catalysts, which thus regained their initial activity.     

Direct amination of isobutylene over zeolite catalysts with various topologies and acidities

The atomically economic and green chemical reaction of direct amination of isobutylene to tertbutylamine, particularly under the relative mild reaction conditions available for future industrial use,was carried out over zeolite catalysts possessing different topological structures, from one dimensional to three dimensional pore system, and from small 8-member ring pore(MRP) to medium 10 MRP and further to large 12 MRP zeolites, to disclose the relationship between the zeolite properties/topologies and their amination performance systematically under the mild reaction conditions. It was discovered that the pore structure and the acidities of zeolite catalysts played crucial roles in the isobutylene amination process, and suitable pore diameter(larger than 0.5 nm or with large side pockets/cups in the outside surface) and a certain number of mid-strong acid sites are indispensable to catalyze the amination reaction,while too strong acid strength was not conducive to the process of isobutylene amination. Among them,zeolites with topologies of BEA, MFI, MEL, MWW and EUO exhibited good amination performance, with which the isobutylene conversion was higher than 12.61%(46.42% of the equilibrium conversion) under the studied mild reaction conditions. Due to the good amination performance and the large adjustable Si/Al_2 ratio range, ZSM-5 was selected to further study the effect of acidity on the amination performance systematically under the mild reaction conditions, and the activity-acidity relationship in the amination process was disclosed: the amination activity(isobutylene conversion) had a linear correlation with the amount of mid-strong B acidity under the studied conditions over ZSM-5 catalyst, which can provide guidance for further developing high-efficient amination catalyst under mild reaction conditions available for future industrial use.     

Problems in the Study of Catalyst Deactivation Kinetics

Problems arising in kinetic studies of catalyst deactivation and in catalyst stability tests are considered. The choice and substantiation of deactivation conditions, the primary analysis and interpretation of experimental data, and the construction of a kinetic model of deactivation are illustrated by examples. Accelerated deactivation for quick catalyst stability testing is discussed.     

浆态床二甲醚合成催化剂失活因素研究

以完全液相法制备的Si-Al基二甲醚合成催化剂为研究对象,运用XRD、TEM、XPS以及XRF等方法对失活催化剂的表面结构和性质进行表征,并与传统催化剂进行对比,探讨影响催化剂寿命的本质原因。研究结果表明,传统复合催化剂失活的主要原因是反应过程中Cu组分的烧结、团聚以及催化剂比表面积降低等;而Si-Al基完全液相法催化剂失活是由于Cu组分流失所致。     

Time-of-flight secondary ion-mass spectrometry as a new technique for the investigations of the deactivation process of hydrodechlorination catalysts

Time-of-flight secondary ion-mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) was applied to investigations of the deactivation process of hydrodechlorination catalysts. It appeared that, owing to the use of the ToF-SIMS technique, simultaneous monitoring of various reasons for catalyst deactivation was possible in one measurement. As a model catalyst, the Pd/Al₂O₃ sample was chosen. ToF-SIMS studies revealed an increase in the amount of Cl and PdCl₂ on the catalyst surface during the hydrodechlorination reaction. Moreover, a drop in the quantity of surface-accessible Pd was observed. The text was submitted by the authors in English.     

Importance of counterion reactivity on the deactivation of Co-salen catalysts in the hydrolytic kinetic resolution of epichlorohydrin

Possible modes of deactivation of Jacobsen's Co-salen catalyst during the hydrolytic kinetic resolution (HKR) of epichlorohydrin were explored by UV-vis spectroscopy, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, combined with recycling studies. Although an active Co(III)-salen catalyst deactivated substantially after multiple cycles without regeneration, the catalyst maintained its +3 oxidation state throughout the runs. Thus, deactivation of Co-salen during HKR was not the result of Co reduction. The mass spectrum of a deactivated material showed that catalyst dimerization does not account for the loss of activity. Results from various catalyst pretreatment tests, as well as from catalysts containing various counterions (acetate, tosylate, chloride, iodide) indicated that the rate of addition of the Co-salen counterions to epoxide forming Co-OH during the reaction correlated with deactivation. The extent of counterion addition to epoxide was influenced by the exposure time and the nucleophilicity of the counterion. An oligo(cyclooctene)-supported Co-OAc salen catalyst, which was 25 times more active than the standard Co-salen catalyst, was recycled multiple times with negligible deactivation.     

In situ characterization of an iron catalyst by potassium ion desorption and electron emission measurements

The surface conditions of an industrial iron catalyst were monitoredin situ by work function measurements and measurements of thermal desorption of potassium ions. Changes in activation energy for potassium ion desorption and in work function values during catalyst activation and deactivation are discussed in terms of the potassium coverage and chemical composition of the catalyst surface.     

积碳失活催化剂的再生

催化反应常伴随着积碳的生成,而积碳又可以通过覆盖催化剂酸性位点或者堵塞催化剂孔道而引起催化剂失活,表现为产物选择性的降低.根据不同的失活机理可以将催化剂失活分为永久性失活和可逆性失活,而积碳失活一般是可逆的,可以通过再生的方式来除去积碳并恢复催化剂活性.对于工业生产而言,为了保证反应的连续运行,失活催化剂的及时再生是非常必要的.尽管前人已经做了大量的研究,并尝试不同的再生方法来除去催化剂积碳,但发展一种操作简单、高效和经济的再生方法仍然是一个巨大的挑战.目前工业催化剂积碳失活后最常用的再生手段是氧化再生,其主要以空气或氧气为再生气体,将积碳转化为一氧化碳、二氧化碳和水等.但空气或氧气氧化再生为强放热反应,放出的大量热量及生成的水蒸气会对催化剂的组分及结构带来一定的影响.虽然以臭氧和氮氧化物为再生气体可以有效降低再生温度,但是作为有毒有害气体,它们的排放受到严格的限制,这也阻碍了其进一步工业化应用.与氧化再生相比,二氧化碳或水蒸气气化再生可以有效降低再生过程中的放热量,并将无价值的积碳转化为高品质的合成气,同时减少二氧化碳的排放.但由于二氧化碳和水蒸气的氧化性较弱,需要较高的再生温度,对催化剂的水热稳定性提出了更高的要求.此外,在氢气气氛下,可以通过加氢裂解除去积碳,但同样需要较高的再生温度或压力.通过添加金属或金属氧化物等添加剂,可以有效降低再生温度并增加再生速率,但也可能会引起催化剂中毒,造成催化剂的永久性失活,所以需要严格控制添加剂的含量.本文分析了目前常用的几种再生方法的优缺点及面临的挑战,并对未来的研究重点及研究方向进行了展望.     

Production of hydrogen peroxide from carbon monoxide, water and oxygen over alumina-supported Ni catalysts

Novel amorphous Ni–B catalysts supported on alumina have been developed for the production of hydrogen peroxide from carbon monoxide, water and oxygen. The experimental investigation confirmed that the promoter/Ni ratio and the preparation conditions have a significant effect on the activity and lifetime of the catalyst. Among all the catalysts tested, the Ni–La–B/γ-Al₂O₃ catalyst with a 1:15 atomic ratio of La/Ni, dried at 120 °C, shows the best activity and lifetime for the production of hydrogen peroxide. The deactivation of the alumina-supported Ni–B amorphous catalyst was also studied. According to the characterizations of the fresh and used catalysts by SEM, XRD and XPS, no sintering of the active component and crystallization of the amorphous species were observed. However, it is water poisoning that leads to the deactivation of the catalyst. The catalyst characterization demonstrated that the active component had changed (i.e., amorphous NiO to amorphous Ni(OH)₂) and then salt was formed in the reaction conditions. Water promoted the deactivation because the surface transformation of the active Ni species was accelerated by forming Ni(OH)₂ in the presence of water. The formed Ni(OH)₂ would partially change to Ni₃(PO₄)₂.     

Preparation of Al2O3-supported nano-Cu2O catalysts for the oxidative treatment of industrial wastewater

Cuprous oxide (Cu₂O) nanoparticles supported on Al₂O₃ prepared using two different methods (hereafter referred to as catalyst I and II, respectively) were characterized by XRD and TEM. The catalytic activities of catalyst I and II during the treatment of industrial wastewater were then investigated. Specifically, the progress of the catalytic oxidation of industrial wastewater was observed by monitoring the time-dependent change in the chemical oxygen demand (COD) of industrial wastewater when the catalysts were applied. The results indicated that the catalytic activity of catalyst II was greater than that of catalyst I. Furthermore, under optimal conditions the COD removal efficiency was 94.59%. Finally, the mechanism by which the oxidative degradation of the industrial wastewater occurred could be explained based on a hydroxyl radical mechanism.     

Improvement of the stability of Hg/AC catalysts by CsCl for the high-temperature hydrochlorination of acetylene

Activated carbon-supported mercuric chloride(HgCl_2) is used as an industrial catalyst for acetylene hydrochlorination. However, the characteristic of easy sublimation of HgCl_2 leads to the deactivation o the catalyst. Here, we showed that the thermal stability of the Hg/AC catalyst can be evidently improved when Cs Cl is added into the Hg/AC catalyst. Compared with the pure Hg/AC catalyst, the sublimation rate of HgCl_2 from the Hg–Cs/AC catalyst decreased significantly and the Hg–Cs/AC catalyst showed bette catalytic activity and stability in the reaction. This promoting effect is related to the existence of cesium mercuric chlorides(Cs_xHg_yCl_(x+2y)) highlighted by XRD, HR-TEM and EDX analyses. Thus, reacting HgCl_2 with alkali chlorides to form alkali-mercuric chlorides may be a key to design highly efficient and thermally stable mercuric chloride catalyst for hydrochlorination reactions.     

一步合成二甲醚催化剂烧结失活和原位再生的研究

采用共沉淀沉积法制备了CuOZnOAl2O3/γ Al2O3 HZSM 5复合催化剂,考察了其对CO加氢直接合成二甲醚的催化性能,研究了催化剂的失活和再生,并用H2-TPR、XRD、TPO、N2O化学吸附等表征方法对反应前后和再生后催化剂的物化性质进行了表征。结果表明,一步合成二甲醚催化剂的失活主要是由于活性位Cu晶粒的烧结长大;反应温度和原料气的组成是影响催化剂失活的因素,在低于220℃下,以N2/H2/CO/CO2为原料气会显著降低催化剂的失活速率。研究使用的氧化还原循环的再生方法能够使Cu晶粒发生再分散,并使失活的催化剂恢复了75%以上的活性。     

Ni-Mg复合催化剂催化裂解CH_4制氢动力学研究

基于定温热重实验,建立了甲烷催化裂解反应动力学模型和催化剂表面积炭失活动力学模型。其中,甲烷催化裂解动力学模型将初始产氢速率视为催化剂未积炭条件下的动力学基础数据;催化剂表面积炭失活动力学则基于甲烷催化裂解速率的降低。实验使用Ni-Mg复合催化剂,分别在535、585、635℃,甲烷分压10~4、2×10~4、3×10~4Pa条件下展开甲烷催化裂解动力学特性研究。结果表明,甲烷催化裂解的反应级数为0.5,活化能为82 k J/mol;Ni-Mg复合催化剂反应失活级数为0.5,催化剂失活活化能为118 k J/mol。实验条件下均制得了多壁碳纳米管。     

Properties of triphenylphosphite-modified rhodium carbonyl catalysts for the hydroformylation of 2-butenes

The factor responsible for the deactivation of a carbonyl triphenylphosphite rhodium hydroformylation catalyst appears to be the formation of a chelate-structure complex with diphenylphosphite, which is the product of partial hydrolysis of the organophosphorus ligand. The deactivating effect of diphenylphosphite can be suppressed upon interaction of the H(O)P(OPh)₂ and P(OPh)₃-modified complex with 2-butenes under hydroformylation reaction conditions.Translated from Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya Khimicheskaya, No. 12, pp. 2712–2716, December 1990.     

铜基甲醇合成催化剂的失活研究

选用了两个化肥厂的失活甲醇合成催化剂,采用ＸＲＤ、ＳＥＭ、ＳＥＭ－ＥＤＳ、ＴＥＭ、ＸＰＳ、ＴＲＰ、ＣＯ－ＴＰＤ和化学吸附等方法对催化剂进行比较测试。结果表明,硫中毒、积炭、铜粒长大和杂质金属沉积等是造成甲醇合成催化剂失活的因素。由于某一种或几种因素都导致催化剂活性表面积的降低,对反应物ＣＯ吸附量减少,或造成催化剂对ＣＯ吸附能力的降低,从而降低合成甲醇反应的活性。硫中毒和铜粒长大是普遍存在的最主要因