High Temperature Shear Strength of T650-35/HFPE-II-52 Polyimide Matrix Unidirectional Composite

The shear strength of a 4-ply unidirectional composite laminate consisting of carbon fibers (T650-35) and a polyimide matrix (HFPE-II-52) was measured over a temperature range of 25 to 315°C. The tests were performed using a Iosipescu test sample, modified to provide a more uniform shear stress distribution across the gauge section and loaded with an Arcan type test fixture. The test specimen design is based on the results of an extensive finite element study. Shear strength tests were performed on dry, 50% RH and 100% RH moisture saturated samples. Results of the experiment show that shear strength decreases from approximately 120 MPa at 25°C to 60 MPa at 315°C and that moisture saturated samples have a 5–10 MPa lower shear strength than dry samples.     

Composite specimen bearing failure reduction in iosipescu shear tests

ASTM losipescu sheart test fixtures often crush the loaded edges of high shear strength specimens before shear failure occurs between the notches. To alleviate this problem, two new shear test fixtures were designed and built. The first uses a pivoting load surface to track the specimen shape as it changes under load. The second uses a rounded load surface optimized to produce a uniform bearing pressure along the loaded edge of a quasi-isotropic sheet-molding compound (SMC) specimen at shear failure. Finite element analyses and strain gage data are presented that describe the behavior of the baseline ASTM, pivoting load surface and rounded load surface fixtures. A substantial reduction in bearing stress and edge crushing was obtained with the rounded load surface fixture. Additionally, the modified surface optimized to test SMC specimens showed no tendency to change the shear strength measured in other composite specimens.     

Micro-mechanical modelling of strain induced porosity under generally compressive stress states

This paper is concerned with the nucleation and growth of voids in a titanium alloy undergoing high temperature deformations under generally compressive stress states typical of forging processes. A micro-mechanical model for void nucleation has been developed based on a debonding process between primary alpha particles and the beta matrix. The finite element model developed has been used to examine in detail the stress state sensitivity of void nucleation within the particle-matrix system. The results obtained are compared with other phenomenological approaches showing good agreement for most stress states, but giving different results for a range of compressive stress states. A continuum-level representation of the micro-mechanical results has been obtained and implemented into a finite element model. Cylindrical specimen compression tests have been carried out over the strain rate range 0.005-5.0s⁻¹ and temperature range 925–975°C under conditions of high specimen-die friction.Regions of stress triaxiality that are tensile in nature were therefore generated, and the specimens tested to an overall strain of 0.5 were sectioned, polished and etched. The resulting distributions of voids were quantified, and compared with those predicted using the finite element model discussed above. Good quantitative agreement was obtained both in terms of the magnitude of the area fractions of voids and their distributions. The model also captures reasonably well the strain rate and temperature dependence of the voiding. However, the model assumptions of uniform distributions of alpha particles which are all perfectly spherical and with identical interfacial bond strengths are overly simple, and need to be improved.     

Quasi-Static and Dynamic Large Strain Shear-Tension Testing

A new shear specimen is designed, evaluated and tested quasi-statically and dynamically. The specimen consists of a long cylinder having a horizontal gauge section created by two diametrically opposed semi-circular slots machined parallel to the longitudinal axis. This geometry imposes a rather uniform stress state, close to pure shear in the gauge section. Quasi-static and dynamic tension-shear tests up to a strain rate of 10⁴ 1/s were carried out on 1020 cold-drawn steel specimens. The obtained stress–strain curves and ductility were validated numerically. The new specimen can be used to study the shear mechanical characteristics of a material using tensile testing.     

Effects of texture on shear band formation in plane strain tension/compression and bending

In this study, effects of typical texture components observed in rolled aluminum alloy sheets on shear band formation in plane strain tension/compression and bending are systematically studied. The material response is described by a generalized Taylor-type polycrystal model, in which each grain is characterized in terms of an elastic–viscoplastic continuum slip constitutive relation. First, a simple model analysis in which the shear band is assumed to occur in a weaker thin slice of material is performed. From this simple model analysis, two important quantities regarding shear band formation are obtained: i.e. the critical strain at the onset of shear banding and the corresponding orientation of shear band. Second, the shear band development in plane strain tension/compression is analyzed by the finite element method. Predictability of the finite element analysis is compared to that of the simple model analysis. Third, shear band developments in plane strain pure bending of a sheet specimen with the typical textures are studied. Regions near the surfaces in a bent sheet specimen are approximately subjected to plane strain tension or compression. From this viewpoint, the bendability of a sheet specimen may be evaluated, using the knowledge regarding shear band formation in plane strain tension/compression. To confirm this and to encompass overall deformation of a bent sheet specimen, including shear bands, finite element analyses of plane strain pure bending are carried out, and the predicted shear band formation in bent specimens is compared to that in the tension/compression problem. Finally, the present results are compared to previous related studies, and the efficiency of the present method for materials design in future is discussed.     

Development of a portable shear test fixture for low modulus porous (foam) materials

The shear properties of brittle and highly porous carbon (graphitic) foam cannot be measured reliably with most standard test methods, such as single rail, double rail, Iosipescu shear, etc. A new testing device has been developed to accurately measure the shear stiffness and strength of carbon foam or other porous materials. Specimens of cylindrical cross section are used to reduce the high stress concentration that normally occurs in the vicinity of the grip section. Since strain gages could not be installed on the specimen surface (due to porosity), the shear strain is determined from the specimen end rotation. A high resolution in the rotational measurement is achieved by using a stepper motor with multiple gear reduction. In view of testing low modulus material, the load cell of the fixture was mounted onto an axial roller to relieve the axial constraint while twisting the specimens. The accuracy of the measurement and calibration of the test fixture has been demonstrated by measuring the shear modulus of two plastic (polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and urethane).     

Development and Evaluation of the Quadrant Ring Test Method

Testing of ring-shaped specimens often is required for determining the hoop-direction mechanical properties of cylindrical composite structures. A quadrant ring test method was developed in an effort to produce a relatively uniform stress distribution in the ring specimen using a conventional tensile testing machine. Finite element analysis results indicated that the four-sector quadrant test is capable of producing a more uniform stress distribution in the specimen than the split-disk test. However, similar tensile strengths were obtained using the quadrant and split-disk tests, both significantly below those obtained from tensile testing of flat specimens. The lack of improvement in tensile strength produced by the quadrant test was caused by small rotations of the fixture quadrants during loading, producing greater peak stresses than for the ideal case of radially displaced sectors. These results suggest that test fixturing that produces a true outward radial displacement of the fixture sectors is required to produce accurate tensile strengths.     

A New Shear-Compression Test for Determining the Pressure Influence on the Shear Response of Elastomers

A new shear-compression experiment for investigating the influence of hydrostatic pressure (mean stress) on the large deformation shear response of elastomers is presented. In this new design, a nearly uniform torsional shear strain is superposed on a uniform volumetric compression strain generated by axially deforming specimens confined by a stack of thin steel disks. The new design is effective in applying uniform shear and multiaxial compressive stress on specimens while preventing buckling and barreling during large deformation under high loads. By controlling the applied pressure and shear strain independently of each other, the proposed setup allows for measuring the shear and bulk response of elastomers at arbitrary states within the shear-pressure stress space. Thorough evaluation of the new design is conducted via laboratory measurements and finite element simulations. Practical issues and the need for care in specimen preparation and data reduction are explained and discussed. The main motivation behind developing this setup is to aid in characterizing the influence of pressure or negative dilatation on the constitutive shear response of elastomeric coating materials in general and polyurea in particular. Experimental results obtained with the new design illustrate the significant increase in the shear stiffness of polyurea under moderate to high hydrostatic pressures.     

Comparison of Test Specimens for Characterizing the Dynamic Properties of Rubber

Dynamic material properties inferred via experiment can be strongly influenced by the choice of test specimen geometry unless care is taken to ensure that mechanical fields (stress, strain, etc.) within the specimen adequately reflect the ideal homogeneous deformation state. In this work, finite element models of simple shear, cylindrical compression, simple tension, and bi-conical shear test specimens were analyzed in order to quantify the relative conformity of each specimen to its corresponding ideal. Three metrics of conformity were evaluated, based respectively on the distributions of stress, strain, and strain energy density. The results show that a simple shear specimen provides superior conformity. Other factors involved in the selection of test specimen geometry are also discussed. Such factors include relative linearity and symmetry of measured stress–strain data, grip slip, and heat build up.     

Experimental and analytical investigation of the modified wyoming shear-test fixture

The interaction between the isopescu shear-test specimen and the modified Wyoming shear-test fixture was investigated. This involved three areas of study. First, strip strain gages were applied to the specimen contact surfaces to measure strains induced by the fixture. While it has generally been assumed that the fixture induces an asymmetric load into the specimen, the measured strains indicated a nonasymmetric loading. Second, the effect of an out-of-plane moment, externally applied to the fixture, on gage section shear strains was observed. The shear strains observed were small leading to the conclusion that the fixture is very resistant to out-of-plane moments. Finally, the effect of fixture misalignment on the observed shear modulus was determined. The results indicate that the observed shear modulus increased significantly for slight amounts of misalignment. Therefore, experimental techniques should be modified to include a check for misalignment. Beyond this, it is suggested that the fixture design be modified to prevent misalignment and to achieve an asymmetric loading of the specimen.     

Shear properties and a stress analysis obtained from vinyl-ester losipescu specimens

The use of losipescu specimens for the determination of the shear properties of a vinyl-ester resin was investigated. The antisymmetric four-point bend and the Adams and Walrath fixtures were studied for their suitability in loading these specimens. Photoelastic and strain-gage data in addition to published finite-element results show that the latter fixture distorts the stress field in the gage section. The antisymmetric four-point bend fixture is found to give the purest shear-stress field in the gage section and to yield the most reliable shear-modulus values. A refined photoelastic analysis shows that the shear-stress distribution between the notch roots is essentially uniform with a relative maximum or minimum at the centroid depending on the depths of the notches. Also, stress risers of up to 30 percent are observed near the notch roots. Except at the roots, finite-element predictions are presented which are in excellent agreement with photoelastic data. The failure mode of this vinyl-ester resin is tensile and the corresponding tensile stress calculated from the average shear stress in the gage section of the losipescu specimen is in excellent agreement with failure data acquired in tension.     

OPTIMAL SPECIMEN DESIGN FOR LAP SHEAR TEST

在采用搭接剪切试件进行的剪切强度实验中,试件失效往往是由于试件两端的剥离应力过大,而不是切应力造成的,这往往造成错误的实验结果. 通过有限元和光弹实验相结合的方法研究在搭接结构中引入凹槽以使试件所受的切应力均匀分布并减少两端的剥离应力,从而提高实验精度的可行性. 研究表明,只要凹槽的形状和位置合适,完全可以达到上述效果,从而实现了搭接剪切试件的优化设计.     

Evaluation of the Effect of Thermal Oxidation and Moisture on the Interfacial Shear Strength of Unidirectional IM7/BMI Composite by Fiber Push-in Nanoindentation

Fiber push-in nanoindentation is conducted on a unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced bismaleimide resin composite (IM7/BMI) after thermal oxidation to determine the interfacial shear strength. A unidirectional IM7/BMI laminated plate is isothermally oxidized under various conditions: in air for 2 months at 195 °C and 245 °C, and immersed in water for 2 years at room temperature to reach a moisture-saturated state. The water-immersed specimens are subsequently placed in a preheated environment at 260 °C to receive sudden heating, or are gradually heated at a rate of approximately 6 °C/min. A flat punch tip of 3 μm in diameter is used to push the fiber into the matrix while the resulting load-displacement data is recorded. From the load-displacement data, the interfacial shear strength is determined using a shear-lag model, which is verified by finite element method simulations. It is found that thermal oxidation at 245 °C in air leads to a significant reduction in interfacial shear strength of the IM7/BMI unidirectional composite, while thermal oxidation at 195 °C and moisture concentration have a negligible effect on the interfacial shear strength. For moisture-saturated specimens under a slow heating rate, there is no detectable reduction in the interfacial shear strength. In contrast, the moisture-saturated specimens under sudden heating show a significant reduction in interfacial shear strength. Scanning electron micrographs of IM7/BMI composite reveal that both thermal oxidation at 245 °C in air and sudden heating induced microcracks and debonding along the fiber/matrix interface, thereby weakening the interface, which is the origin of failure mechanism.     

Photoelastic stress analysis of a V-shaped die for plastic work

The stress state in the V-shaped die for plastic compression was investigated by using a photoelastic stress analysis in which an Araldite in a glassy elastic state and a softened celluloid were used as model materials for the die and work specimen, respectively. It was found that the direction of the frictional shear stress is reversed at a certain point on the die surface. Because the frictional shear stress of the die mainly depends on the flow speed of the work material, the popular assumption that the coefficient of friction is a constant over the die surface such as in the case of Coulomb friction appears unrealistic.     

含铺层拼接层合板的剪切强度

对含铺层拼接的碳纤维增强树脂基复合材料层合板进行了剪切强度实验研究.从三种不同铺层拼接角层合板上切取含缺口的剪切试件,通过实验测定了其载荷-位移曲线,得到了剪切强度值.实验结果表明,三组试件的剪切强度基本相同,即拼接层角度改变几乎不会引起层合板的剪切强度发生明显变化.采用有限元软件ABAQUS6.5对实验过程进行模拟,得到拼接层角度改变将引起拼接层中0°层出现切应力集中,但沿缺口切应力的平均值几乎不变.这也说明拼接层角度的变化几乎不影响层合板的剪切强度.     

Limiting conditions for compression testing of flat specimens in the split hopkinson pressure bar

The split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) technique is analyzed during the initial stages of loading by means of axisymmetric finite element simulations of dynamic compression tests. Limiting strains as functions of the test parameters such as the specimen diameterd and heighth were found to ensure a one-dimensional stress state and axial stress homogeneity in specimens of elastic-perfectly plastic material. The one-dimensional stress state is necessary and sufficient for accurate test results for flat specimens (h/d≤0.5) and nonflat specimens, respectively, with diameters up to half of the bar diameter. Only very small values of the Coulomb friction constraint (μ≈0.01) seem to be acceptable. The significance of the determined limiting conditions to the more practical case of a rate dependent material is investigated using an elastic-viscoplastic material for the specimen. The stress and strain rate reconstructed from the calculated bar signals (according to the SHPB analysis) are compared with stresses and strain rates averaged over the cross section of the specimen. Well-known inertia corrections improve the results of the SHPB procedure, but errors remain for small strains and highly time dependent strain rates.     

Sensitivity of the shear gage to normal strains

This paper documents an experimental study that was conducted to demonstrate the sensitivity of the shear gage to the presence of normal strains. The shear gage is a specially designed strain gage rosette that measures the average shear strain in the test section of notched specimens such as the losipescu, Arcan and compact shear specimens. These specimens can have complicated stress states with high shear and normal strain gradients. To evaluate the sensitivity of the shear gage to normal strains, shear gages were tested on an Arcan specimen. The Arcan specimen is a notched specimen that can be loaded in pure shear (90 deg), pure tension (0 deg) and at intermediate 15- deg increments. The shear modulus for an aluminum specimen was determined at each of these loading angles. It was found that the gages display nearly zero sensitivity to normal strains ( _x, _y). Moiré interferometry was used to document the shear and normal strain distributions in the test section and to provide an independent method for determining the average shear strain. These results reinforce the robust nature of testing with the shear gage.     

Large Strain Shear Compression Test of Sheet Metal Specimens

A hybrid experimental-computational procedure to establish accurate true stress-plastic strain curve of sheet metal specimen covering the large plastic strain region using shear compression test data is described. A new shear compression jig assembly with a machined gage slot inclined at 35° to the horizontal plane of the assembly is designed and fabricated. The novel design of the shear compression jig assembly fulfills the requirement to maintain a uniform volume of yielded material with characteristic maximum plastic strain level across the gage region of the Shear Compression Metal Sheet (SCMS) specimen. The approach relies on a one-to-one correlation between measured global load–displacement response of the shear compression jig assembly with SCMS specimen to the local stress-plastic strain behavior of the material. Such correlations have been demonstrated using finite element (FE) simulation of the shear compression test. Coefficients of the proposed correlations and their dependency on relative plastic modulus were determined. The procedure has been established for materials with relative plastic modulus in the range 5?×?10^?4?<?(E _p /E)?<?0.01. It can be readily extended to materials with relative plastic modulus values beyond the range considered in this study. Nonlinear characteristic hardening of the material could be established through piecewise linear consideration of the measured load–displacement curve. Validity of the procedure is established by close comparison of measured and FE-predicted load–displacement curve when the provisional hardening curve is employed as input material data in the simulation. The procedure has successfully been demonstrated in establishing the true stress-plastic strain curve of a demonstrator 0.0627C steel SCMS specimen to a plastic strain level of 49.2 pct.     

Measurement of the Residual Stress Tensor in a Compact Tension Weld Specimen

Neutron diffraction measurements have been performed to determine the full residual stress tensor along the expected crack path in an austenitic stainless steel (Esshete 1250) compact tension weld specimen. A destructive slitting method was then implemented on the same specimen to measure the stress intensity factor profile associated with the residual stress field as a function of crack length. Finally deformations of the cut surfaces were measured to determine a contour map of the residual stresses in the specimen prior to the cut. The distributions of transverse residual stress measured by the three techniques are in close agreement. A peak tensile stress in excess of 600 MPa was found to be associated with an electron beam weld used to attach an extension piece to the test sample, which had been extracted from a pipe manual metal arc butt weld. The neutron diffraction measurements show that exceptionally high residual stress triaxiality is present at crack depths likely to be used for creep crack growth testing and where a peak stress intensity factor of 35 MPa√m was measured (crack depth of 21 mm). The neutron diffraction measurements identified maximum values of shear stress in the order of 50 MPa and showed that the principal stress directions were aligned to within ~20° of the specimen orthogonal axes. Furthermore it was confirmed that measurement of strains by neutron diffraction in just the three specimen orthogonal directions would have been sufficient to provide a reasonably accurate characterisation of the stress state in welded CT specimens.     

激光金属沉积GH4169在不同应变率下的剪切特性及破坏机理研究

为了能在传统的分离式Hopkinson压杆上准确可靠地测试激光金属沉积GH4169的动态剪切特性，基于数值模拟方法对比分析了三种不同动态剪切试样形式及尺寸对剪切区应力分布的影响，结果表明:经过尺寸优化后的双剪切试样的剪切区剪应力占主导地位，可实现近似纯剪切的动态剪切实验。利用此试样形式，系统测试了不同取向（扫描方向、沉积方向）的LMD GH4169试样在不同应变率下的剪切应力应变曲线，并对破坏后试样进行了SEM分析观察。结果表明:(1) 本文中选用的试样形式剪切纯度高，应力沿剪切区宽度厚度分布均匀，可以更好地得到材料的动态剪切特性；(2) 对实验所得剪应力-剪应变曲线进行分析，发现本材料在扫描路径方向和沉积方向并没有表现出明显的各向异性，但随着应变率的增加，具有明显的应变率强化效应；将单轴压缩和动态剪切应力应变曲线同时转换为等效应力应变曲线，对比证实了试样形式能很好反应材料的剪切特性；(3) 通过对LMD GH4169剪切变形破坏试样的微观分析发现，随着应变率升高，断口韧窝尺寸和深度减小，韧性降低，在更小的变形量下容易剪切失效。初始微观缺陷容易导致材料的动态剪切破坏。