Using computer simulation to assist in the robustness analysis of an ion-exchange chromatography step

This paper presents a methodology to gain process knowledge and assist in the robustness analysis of an ion-exchange step in a protein purification process using a model-based approach. Factorial experimental design is common practice in industry today to obtain robustness characterization of unit operations with respect to variations in process parameters. This work aims at providing a better insight into what process variations affect quality and to further reduce the experimental work to the regions of process variation that are of most interest. This methodology also greatly increases the ability to predict process performance and promotes process understanding. The model calibration part of the methodology involves three consecutive steps to calibrate a steric mass action (SMA) ion-exchange chromatography model. Firstly, a number of gradient elution experiments are performed. Secondly, experimental breakthrough curves have to be generated for the proteins if the adsorption capacity of the medium for each component is not known. Thirdly, a multi-component loading experiment is performed to calibrate the multi-component effects that cannot be determined from the single-component experiments. The separation process studied in this work is the separation of polyclonal IgG from a mixture containing IgG, myoglobin and BSA. The calibrated model is used to simulate six process variations in a full factorial experiment. The results of the simulations provide information about the importance of the different process variations and the simulations are also used to determine the crucial points for the process parameter variations. The methodology can be used to assist in the robustness analysis normally performed in the pharmaceutical industry today as it is able to predict the impact on process performance resulting from variations in salt concentration, column load, protein concentration and flow rate.     

Chromatographic behavior of a polyclonal antibody mixture on a strong cation exchanger column. Part II: Adsorption modelling

The adsorption of a polyclonal IgG mixture on a strong cation exchanger column is characterized using a detailed multi-component pore model. This model is explicit in all transport parameters and includes salt dependent isotherms. As discussed in the first part of this work, the IgG mixture can be simplified by considering two pseudo-variants only. Linear gradient experiments are used to fit the salt dependent adsorption isotherms and the mass transport parameters for the two pseudo-variants. Using the model, breakthrough curves are predicted with good accuracy. The model is also implemented to visualize the axial and radial concentration profiles of the two pseudo-variants in the column during a loading experiment.     

Hydrophobic interaction chromatography of proteins IV. Kinetics of protein spreading

Adsorption of proteins on surfaces of hydrophobic interaction chromatography media is at least a two-stage process. Application of pure protein pulses (bovine serum albumin and beta-lactoglobulin) to hydrophobic interaction chromatography media yielded two chromatographic peaks at low salt concentrations. At these salt concentrations, the adsorption process is affected by a second reaction, which can be interpreted as protein spreading or partial unfolding of the protein. The kinetic constants of the spreading reaction were derived from pulse response experiments at different residence times and varying concentrations by applying a modified adsorption model considering conformational changes. The obtained parameters were used to calculate uptake and breakthrough curves for spreading proteins. Although these parameters were determined at low saturation of the column, predictions of overloaded situations could match the experimental runs satisfactorily. Our findings suggest that proteins which are sensitive to conformational changes should be loaded at high salt concentrations in order to accelerate the adsorption reaction and to obtain steeper breakthrough curves.     

A high-throughput methodology for liquid phase adsorption experimentation

This article describes a novel application of high-throughput experimentation, namely in the field of liquid mixture separation through adsorption. Two separate setups are designed and extensively used to study multicomponent liquid phase adsorption: the first setup performs batch adsorption in static conditions to obtain adsorption isotherms while the latter carries out breakthrough experiments in dynamic conditions, which yield multicomponent breakthrough curves. The obtained data serves as an indicator of the separative qualities of an adsorbent exposed to a particular liquid mixture. The reliability of the obtained measurements is assessed using different validation techniques. Case studies pertaining to the competitive adsorption of binary alkane/alkene/aromatic mixtures on faujasites complete the validation process. A new model for batch adsorption isotherms is proposed based on the equilibrium conditions in liquid phase.     

IgG adsorption on a new protein A adsorbent based on macroporous hydrophilic polymers. I. Adsorption equilibrium and kinetics

Experimental determination and modeling of IgG binding on a new protein A adsorbent based on a macroporous resin were performed. The new adsorbent consists of polymeric beads based on hydrophilic acrylamido and vinyl monomers with a pore structure optimized to allow favorable interactions of IgG with recombinant protein A coupled to the resin. The particles have average diameter of 57 μm and a narrow particle size distribution. The IgG adsorption equilibrium capacity is 46 mg/cm³ and the effective pore diffusivity determined from pulse response experiments for non-binding conditions is 8.0 × 10⁻⁸ cm²/s. The IgG adsorption kinetics can be described with the same effective diffusivity by taking into account a heterogeneous binding mechanism with fast binding sites, for which adsorption is completely diffusion controlled, and slow binding sites for which adsorption is controlled by the binding kinetics. As a result of this mechanism, the breakthrough curve exhibits a tailing behavior, which appears to be associated with the slow binding sites. A detailed rate model taking into account intraparticle diffusion and binding kinetics is developed and is found capable of predicting both batch adsorption and breakthrough behavior over an ample range of experimental conditions. The corresponding effective diffusivity is independent of protein concentration in solution over the range 0.2–2 mg/cm³ and of protein binding as a result of the large pore size of the support matrix. Overall, the small particle size and low diffusional hindrance allow capture of IgG with short residence times while attaining substantial dynamic binding capacities.     

Protein adsorption and transport in agarose and dextran-grafted agarose media for ion exchange chromatography: Effect of ionic strength and protein characteristics

This work investigates the effects of ionic strength and protein characteristics on adsorption and transport of lysozyme, BSA, and IgG in agarose-based cation exchangers with short ligand chemistry and with charged dextran grafts. In all cases, the adsorption equilibrium capacity decreased with increasing salt. However, the adsorption kinetics was strongly influenced by the adsorbent structure and protein characteristics. For the smaller and positively charged lysozyme, the effective pore diffusivity was only weakly dependent on salt for the dextran-free media, but declined sharply with salt for the dextran-grafted materials. For this protein, the dextran grafts enhanced the adsorption kinetics at low salt, but the enhancement vanished at higher salt concentrations. For BSA, which was near its isoelectric point for the experimental conditions studied, the effective diffusivity was low for all materials and almost independent of salt. Finally, for the larger and positively charged IgG, the effective diffusivity varied with salt, reaching an apparent maximum at intermediate concentrations for both dextran-free and dextran-grafted media with the kinetics substantially enhanced by the dextran grafts for these conditions. Microscopic observations of the particles during protein adsorption at low ionic strengths showed transient patterns characterized by sharp adsorption fronts for all materials. A theory taking into account surface or adsorbed phase diffusion with electrostatic coupling of diffusion fluxes is introduced to explain the mechanism for the enhanced adsorption kinetics observed for the positively charged proteins.     

Hydrophobic interaction chromatography of proteins. IV. Protein adsorption capacity and transport in preparative mode

The adsorption isotherms of four model proteins (lysozyme, α-lactalbumin, ovalbumin, and BSA) on eight commercial phenyl hydrophobic interaction chromatography media were measured. The isotherms were softer than those usually seen in ion-exchange chromatography of proteins, and the static capacities of the media were lower, ranging from 30 to 110 mg/mL, depending on the ammonium sulfate concentration and the protein and adsorbent types. The protein-accessible surface area appears to be the main factor determining the binding capacity, and little correlation was seen with the protein affinities of the adsorbents. Breakthrough experiments showed that the dynamic capacities of the adsorbents at 10% breakthrough were 20-80% of the static capacities, depending on adsorbent type. Protein diffusivities in the adsorbents were estimated from batch uptake experiments using the pore diffusion and homogeneous diffusion models. Protein transport was affected by the adsorbent pore structures. Apparent diffusivities were higher at lower salt concentrations and column loadings, suggesting that adsorbed proteins may retard intraparticle protein transport. The diffusivities estimated from the batch uptake experiments were used to predict column breakthrough behavior. Analytical solutions developed for ion-exchange systems were able to provide accurate predictions for lysozyme breakthrough but not for ovalbumin. Impurities in the ovalbumin solutions used for the breakthrough experiments may have affected the ovalbumin uptake and led to the discrepancies between the predictions and the experimental results.     

Mathematical model using non-uniform flow distribution for dynamic protein breakthrough with membrane adsorption media

A mathematical model has been investigated to predict protein breakthrough during membrane adsorption/chromatography operations. The new model incorporates a non-uniform boundary condition at the column inlet to help describe the deviation from plug flow within real membrane adsorption devices. The model provides estimated breakthrough profiles of a binding protein while explicitly accounting for non-uniform flow at the inlet of the separation operation by modeling the flow distribution by a polynomial. We have explored experimental breakthrough curves produced using commercial membrane adsorption devices, as well as novel adsorption media of nanolayered nanofiber membranes, and compare them to model predictions. Further, the impact of using various simplifying assumptions is considered, which can have a dramatic effect on the accuracy and predictive ability of the proposed models. The new model, using only simple batch equilibrium and kinetic uptake rate data, along with membrane properties, is able to accurately predict the non-uniform and unsymmetrical shape for protein breakthrough during operation of membrane adsorption/chromatography devices.     

Protein adsorption on novel acrylamido-based polymeric ion-exchangers III. Salt concentration effects and elution behavior

The effect of salt concentration on the adsorption and desorption of BSA has been determined for a polymeric anion-exchanger based on acrylamido monomers. The material investigated possesses a high adsorption capacity at low salt concentration and the bound protein can be recovered quantitatively at high salt concentrations. The effects of salt on adsorption and desorption rates were evaluated from batch and shallow-bed experiments, and a model was developed to describe the data quantitatively. The adsorption capacity decreases as the salt concentration is increased, but both adsorption and desorption rates increase at higher salt concentrations. The predictability of the behavior of columns packed with this material was examined by comparing model predictions and experimental results obtained in laboratory columns. In general, a good agreement was obtained between predicted and experimental breakthrough and elution profiles, especially in shorter columns. Thus, the model allows a prediction of the effects of column length, mobile phase flow-rate, protein feed concentration, and salt concentration on dynamic capacity, productivity, and on the concentration of product fractions.     

Computer-aided process design of affinity membrane adsorbers: a case study on antibodies capturing

Design of affinity membrane adsorbers for the purification of biomolecules requires a consideration of loading, washing, and elution. Modelling and simulation of membrane adsorbers in literature is, however, strongly focused on the loading step. Therefore, in this work, a complete process model which takes all the different steps into account was developed. Breakthrough experiments in which human IgG was captured onto and eluted from Sartobind Protein A downscale modules were used for model validation and for estimation of the required model parameters. The experimentally observed breakthrough curves were independent of the applied flow rate and from these results linear correlations between lumped kinetic parameters and linear velocity were determined. During elution, desorption was best described by an irreversible reaction of first order in H⁺ concentration. Applicability of the developed model to computer-aided design was illustrated through a process analysis study in which the influence of the amount of loaded protein per cycle on the process yield and productivity was investigated.     

Comparison of protein A affinity sorbents II. Mass transfer properties

Protein A affinity chromatography is the standard purification method for isolation of therapeutic antibodies. Due to improvements in expression technology and optimization of fermentation, culture supernatants with high antibody content must be processed. Recently protein A affinity media with improved adsorption characteristics have been developed. The agarose media MabSelect Xtra and MabSelect SuRe are recent developments of the existing protein A affinity medium MabSelect. MabSelect Xtra is designed to exhibit a higher binding capacity for IgG, and MabSelect SuRe is functionalized with an alkaline stabilized protein A. ProSep-vA Ultra is a porous glass medium with a pore size of 70 nm, also developed to improve the binding capacity. Adsorption was measured in a finite and infinite bath. Mass transfer in these systems could be well described by a model including film and pore diffusion. Mass transfer parameters were used to accurately predict IgG breakthrough in packed bed mode. The dynamic binding capacity of all three media did not change when residence time was at least 4 min. All three media are suited for capture of feed stocks with high antibody content.     

Model-based optimization of a preparative ion-exchange step for antibody purification

A method using a model-based approach to design and optimize an ion-exchange step in a protein purification process is proposed for the separation of IgG from a mixture containing IgG, BSA and myoglobin. The method consists of three steps. In the first step, the model is calibrated against carefully designed experiments. The chromatographic model describes the convective and dispersive flow in the column, the diffusion in the adsorbent particles, and the protein adsorption using Langmuir kinetics with mobile phase modulators (MPM). In the second step, the model is validated against a validation experiment and analyzed. In the third and final step, the operating conditions are optimized. In the optimization step, the loading volume and the elution gradient are optimized with regard to the most important costs: the fixed costs and the feed cost. The optimization is achieved by maximizing the objective functions productivity (i.e. the production rate for a given amount of stationary phase) and product yield (i.e. the fraction of IgG recovered in the product stream). All optimization is conducted under the constraint of 99% purity of the IgG. The model calibration and the analysis show that this purification step is determined mainly by the kinetics, although as large a protein as IgG is used in the study. The two different optima resulting from this study are a productivity of 2.7 g IgG/(s m3) stationary phase and a yield of 90%. This model-based approach also gives information of the robustness of the chosen operating conditions. It is shown that the bead diameter could only be increased from 15 microm to 35 microm with maximum productivity and a 99% purity constraint due to increased diffusion hindrance in larger beads.     

Preparation of thiophilic paramagnetic adsorbent for separation of antibodies

The micron-sized microspheres with superparamagnetic property were synthesized with vinyl acetate and divinylbenzene by microsuspension polymerization. After the complete alcoholysis, these hydroxyl-functionalized microspheres were activated by divinylfone and modified with mercaptoethanol to prepare the thiophilic magnetic adsorbent, which was used to specifically isolate immunoglobulin G （IgG） from human serum. This thiophilic magnetic adsorbent performed an evident salt-dependent adsorption behavior for IgG. Due to their salt-promoted adsorption towards IgG under high salt concentration, the absorbed antibodies could be extracted in low salt concentration with high purity.     

Quantification of immunoglobulin G and characterization of process related impurities using coupled Protein A and size exclusion high performance liquid chromatography

The present work describes two HPLC-UV methods for multi-protein quantification using (i) only a Protein A sensor cartridge (Protein A HPLC) and (ii) the same Protein A cartridge in combination with a size exclusion HPLC column (PSEC-HPLC). The possibility to simultaneously quantify immunoglobulin G (IgG) besides a non-binding protein such as bovine serum albumin (BSA) increases the applicability of Protein A HPLC. Its most pronounced feature is its independence of the buffer system, pH-value and salt content of the investigated sample solvent, which includes cell media. A comparison with the state-of-the-art, the photometrical Bradford method, shows that Protein A HPLC is as sensitive as Bradford, but that it comes with an extended linear range of 4 orders of magnitude, ranging from 0.15 [μg abs] to 1 [mg abs] absolute injected protein amount. The applicability of the PSEC-HPLC method is demonstrated for the analysis of real cell culture feed samples. While Protein A binds IgG, the SEC-column distributes the feed impurities by their molecular weight. The peak area ratios of IgG and the feed impurities of interest are then plotted against the collected sample fraction. These Protein A-Size-Exclusion-Chromatographic diagrams (PSEC-plot) combine the performance information of feed impurities and IgG in a single plot. Further it is shown that both methods are suitable for the performance evaluation of antibody purification media using static as well as dynamic binding experiments performed on DEAE-Fractogel and Capto Adhere. The investigated test samples were “mock” protein solutions with increasing complexity ranging from simple PBS buffer to serum free cell media and “real” cell culture feed solutions.     

Phenylboronate-chitosan resins for adsorption of β-amylase from soybean extracts

Isolation and purification of bioproducts from crude extracts can be obtained by affinity methods based on reversible binding of a specific molecule to ligand immobilized in a porous matrix. In the present work, nicrospheres based on chitosan matrix, which incorporated aminophenylboronic acid as a derivative, were prepared and characterized, aimed at developing a β-amylase adsorption process. Kinetic curves and adsorption isotheriru of the crude extracts as well as the breakthrough curves for a frontal chromatographic separation method of a commercial sample of β-amylase from soybean are presented. These results were compared to similar data obtained with a comercial microspheres gel based-on agarose.