Interfacial adhesion between semi-crystalline polymers (polypropylene and nylon-6): in situ compatibilized interface and fracture mechanism

The interfacial fracture toughness between semi-crystalline polymers (polyamide/polypropylene) were studied to understand the failure mechanisms at the interface, especially when the interface was reinforced by an in situ compatibilizer. Based on the observation of the interface using scanning electron microscopy and wide angle X-ray spectroscopy, it was revealed that crystalline structure of polypropylene was not affected by the in situ compatibilizer at the interface. The reinforcing mechanism could be qualitatively identified by investigating the evolution of fracture toughness as a function of annealing time and temperature. The adhesion strength increased with the annealing time. Depending on the annealing temperature, the fracture toughness passed a peak value and then reached a plateau after some bonding time. As long as the chain length of the compatibilizer is long enough to form entanglements with the molecules at both bulk sides, the fracture at the interface is decided by the balance between adhesion strength at the interface and cohesive strength in the weak modulus side; the failure locus follows the lower one. Thus, adhesive failure occurred first when the reaction at the interface did not occur long enough to provide high adhesive strength at the interface, but the cohesive failure occurred in the crack propagation side after the adhesive strength value became higher than the cohesive strength value.     

Fracture Mechanics Studies of Adhesion in Biological Systems

A fracture mechanics based methodology for quantifying adhesive interactions between soft solids, or between a soft solid and a rigid substrate, is reviewed. An emphasis is placed on the application of these techniques to the characterization of adhesive interactions in biological systems. Results from experiments involving the adhesion of gelatin hydrogels to hydrophilic and hydrophobic substrates are described as an illustration of the application of these methods. In these experiments a hemispherical gelatin cap is brought into contact with a flat surface. Separation of the two materials is described in terms of crack propagation along the gelatin/substrate interface. Simultaneous measurements of the applied load, the resulting displacement, and the contact area between the two materials enable us to determine the elastic modulus of the cap, in addition to the crack driving force, or energy release rate. The adhesive behavior of the interface is quantified by the relationship between the energy release rate and the crack velocity. Analogies are made to information obtained from contact angle measurements, and from measurements made with the Israelachvili surface forces apparatus.     

Hybrid method in elastic and elastoplastic fracture mechanics

The utility of the hybrid experimental–numerical method in elastic and elastoplastic fracture mechanics is demonstrated through a fracture process zone analysis and a J-integral computation, respectively. For the former, the crack bridging stresses in the fracture process zones of concrete and alumina fracture specimens were determined through an inverse analysis and the dissipated energies in these zones were quantified. For the latter, J-integral was shown to be highly path dependent with stable crack growth.     

Estimation of surface energy and bonding between AlMgB14 and TiB2

Composites of AlMgB₁₄ with TiB₂ display a positive deviation from the rule-of-mixtures for hardness and wear resistance [1] (Ahmed et al., 2006). This suggests exceptionally strong bonding between the two boride phases. A contributing factor to the strong bonding may be a close matching of surface energy in the two phases. A calculation was performed to estimate the surface energy and its temperature dependence in AlMgB₁₄, based on the critical crack energy release rate and assuming covalent bonding. Results predict that the surface energy of the two phases differs by about 0.4 J/m². Similar results were found for other transition metal diborides, and the surface energy of AlMgB₁₄ was close to that of TiC and TiN, two materials commonly used as sintering aids for TiB₂.     

Baikal Ice Cover as a Representative Block Medium for Research in Lithospheric Geodynamics

The paper summarizes the results of long-term field research in the dynamics of the Baikal ice cover as a multiscale block medium similar to the lithosphere in structure, rheology, and seismotectonic features. The analysis covers data on deformation, seismicity, and contact interaction modes as well as on meteorological factors responsible for dynamic fracture of ice plates and strong ice shocks with earthquake-like vibrations. Similarity between seismic features in ice interface zones and zones of tectonic subduction, collision, and shear is discussed. Reasoning from dynamic analogies and similarities of destruction processes in the ice and lithosphere, the research data can help solving fundamental and applied problems, particularly those of earthquake prediction and assessment of contact interactions between lithospheric plates in fault zones.     

Micromechanical model for fracture toughness prediction in Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloy forgings

An attempt has been made to model the plane-strain fracture toughness, K _Ic, in Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloy forgings subjected to overageing. The proposed model, based on the multiple micromechanisms, reveals the quantitative relations between fracture toughness, fraction of all fracture modes and microstructural parameters associated with multiscale-sized second-phase particles and precipitate-free zones. The new model is validated by the present quantitative data of microstructural and fractographic analysis performed along with mechanical tests on hot-forged plates in T73 condition. The relevant parameters changed by the compositional variations were determined in two orientations. It was found that the predicted K _Ic values represent the tendency of fracture toughness change well. The new model provides better agreement for the case of dominant transgranular fracture mode.     

Plasma Surface Modification of Glass Fibre-Reinforced Nylon-6,6 Thermoplastic Composites for Improved Adhesive Bonding

The surface modification and adhesive bonding of a unidirectional GFRP Nylon-6,6 thermoplastic composite has been investigated. Wettability studies of plasma-treated specimens showed a significant reduction in the advancing and receding contact angles in water, relative to untreated material. The most effective treatment used oxygen plasma. The increases in wettability observed were determined to be the result of (a) an increase in the concentration of oxygen- and nitrogen-containing functional groups on the surface of the polymer and, (b) removal of fluoropolymer contamination, the source of which was identified as the PTFE mould release agent. This was established by SSIMS analysis. The surface modification resulted in significantly improved adhesion between the composite and an applied toughened epoxy adhesive; a considerable increase in the Mode II critical strain energy release rate, G _IIc, was observed following plasma treatment. Specimens treated in an oxygen plasma showed the greatest improvement in G _IIc, failing cohesively at a value of 1.6 kJ·m^–2 after only 15 seconds exposure. Without plasma treatment the specimens failed in an adhesive mode at very low values of G _IIc. Adhesion was further optimised by moulding the GFRP Nylon-6,6 against steel plates instead of PTFE.     

First-principles study on the tensile strength and fracture of the Al-terminated stoichiometric α-Al2O3(0001)/Cu(111) interface

The first-principles tensile tests have been applied to the Al-terminated stoichiometric α-Al₂O₃(0001)/Cu(111) interface by using the ab initio pseudo-potential method based on the density-functional theory. Firstly, the Cu/Al and Cu/Cu interlayers have been examined by the rigid-type tensile test. The interlayer potential curves derived from the first-principles calculations are well fitted by the universal binding-energy relation (UBER) curves. The Cu–Al adhesion is weaker than the back Cu–Cu adhesion. Secondly, the relaxed-type tensile test has revealed the tensile strength and features of interfacial fracture. The ideal tensile strength is about 10?GPa, and the local Young's modulus is about 40?GPa, which means that the Cu/Al interface is quite weak and soft compared with the bulk regions and the O-terminated interface. The failure is initiated from the charge depletion region near the interfacial O atoms when the interlayer stretching exceeds about 30%, and the behaviour of electrons and ions indicates no strong Cu–O bond compared with substantial Cu–Al interactions. The present ab initio data are useful for the construction of effective interatomic potentials at the interface.     

The measurement of cohesive and interfacial toughness for bonded metal joints with epoxy adhesives

The types of crack growth in adhesive joints are reviewed and three are identified, namely central cohesive, asymmetric cohesive and interfacial. Test methods for measuring fracture toughness associated with these cracks are then outlined and include a Tapered Double Cantilever Beam (TDCB) test for a central cohesive crack and peel tests on flexible laminates for the other types of crack. In particular, fixed arm and mandrel peel tests are used. Two aerospace adhesives are used to prepare test specimens in order to conduct these tests. For one of these adhesives, all three types of crack growth were recorded and this provided an opportunity to make detailed comparisons of the three associated fracture toughness values. Of particular interest was the use of the mandrel peel method because it enabled a fracture transition (asymmetric cohesive to interfacial fracture) to be observed during the test. The fracture toughness value associated with a central cohesive crack was similar in magnitude to that for an asymmetric cohesive crack. However, the fracture toughness for interfacial fracture was much lower, but similar in magnitude to the expected value of half the fracture toughness from a TDCB test.     

Characterization of English ivy (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hedera helix</Emphasis>) adhesion force and imaging using atomic force microscopy

English ivy (Hedera helix) is well known for its ability to climb onto and strongly adhere to a variety of solid substrates. It has been discovered that the ivy aerial rootlet secretes an adhesive composed of polysaccharide and spherical nanoparticles. This study aims to characterize the mechanical properties of the nanocomposite adhesive using atomic force microscopy (AFM). The adhesive was first imaged by AFM to visualize the nanocomposite. Mechanical properties were then determined at various time points, from secretion to hardening. The experimental results indicate that the ivy adhesive exhibited strong adhesion strength and high elasticity. There was a decrease in adhesive force over time, from 298 to 202 nN during the 24-h study. Accompanying with it were the limited changes in extension length and Young’s modulus. The limited curing process of the ivy adhesive helps fill gaps in the attaching surface, leading to more intimate contact and increased van der Waals interactions with the surface. However, study based on a mechanical model indicated that van der Waals force alone is not significant enough to account for all of the measured force. Other chemical interactions and cross linking likely contribute to the strong adhesion strength of ivy.     

Dislocation model of an asymmetric weak zone for problems of interaction between crack-like defects

An adhesively bonded asymmetric weak zone is proposed as a model for studying the problem of interaction between crack-like defects in an elastic medium. The opening of the weak zone is prescribed by a two-parameter basis function, i.e. by a special dislocation which automatically accounts for the asymmetry and other expected physical features of the stress–strain field near the tips of the weak zone. The adhesive forces corresponding to the prescribed opening are then calculated from the solution of the particular problem. The application of the model is demonstrated on the problem of a long interface crack subjected to wedge opening forces which is separated from a short collinear interface weak zone by a small unbroken strong microstructural feature (a small obstacle). Two key questions pertaining to limiting situations are addressed: (i) when does the weak zone become the nucleus of a cohesive crack on its own without linking with the pre-existing long crack; and (ii) when does it force the rupture of the obstacle and coalesce with the long crack.     

Characterization of the fracture toughness of micro-sized tungsten single crystal notched specimens

Fracture experiments using micrometer-sized notched cantilevers were conducted to investigate the possibility of determining fracture mechanical parameters for the semi-brittle material tungsten. The experiments were also used to improve the understanding of semi-brittle fracture processes for which single crystalline tungsten serves as a model material. Due to the large plastic zone in relation to the micrometer sample size, linear elastic fracture mechanics is inapplicable and elastic-plastic fracture mechanics has to be applied. Conditional fracture toughness values J _Q were calculated from corrected force vs. displacement diagrams. Crack growth was accessible by direct observation of in-situ experiments as well as with the help of unloading compliances. As a further tool, fracture toughness can be determined via crack tip opening displacement. The micro samples behave more ductile and exhibit higher fracture toughness values compared to macro-sized single crystals and fail by stable crack propagation.     

Fracture Micromechanisms of Polypropylene/Polycarbonate/Poly(styrene-b-(ethylene-co-butylene)-b-styrene) (PP/ PC/SEBS) Ternary Blends: The Effects of SEBS Content

Ternary blends of polypropylene/polycarbonate/poly(styrene-b-(ethylene-co-butylene)-b-styrene) (PP/PC/SEBS) with varying SEBS contents were produced via melt blending in a co-rotating twin-screw extruder. The phase morphology of the resulting ternary blends and its relationship with bending and impact behaviors were studied. Transmission optical microscopy (TOM) of the crack tip damage zone and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of impact fractured surfaces were performed to characterize the fracture mechanism. With increasing SEBS content in the PP/PC/SEBS ternary blends, the number of PC/SEBS core-shell particles increased and the size of the core-shell particles enlarged. It was shown that with an SEBS content of 5%, the crack initiation resistance decreased and then was almost unchanged with further increase of SEBS content, while resistance to crack growth increased continuously with increasing of SEBS content. Preliminary analysis of the micromechanical deformation suggested that the high impact toughness observed for samples containing 20 and 30 wt% of SEBS could be attributed to cavitation of the rubbery shell and, consequently, shear yielding of the matrix. This plastic deformation absorbed a tremendous amount of energy. Due to low interfacial adhesion between PC particles and PP matrix in samples containing 5 and 10 wt% of SEBS, debonding occurred too early, so the occurrence of matrix shear yielding was delayed and resulted in premature interfacial failure and, hence, rapid crack propagation.     

An experimental investigation of dynamic crack propagation in a brittle material reinforced with a ductile layer

The fracture behavior of a dynamically loaded edge crack in a brittle-ductile layered material, as a function of applied loading rate, was experimentally investigated. Layered specimens were prepared by sandwiching a thin layer of ductile aluminum between two thick layers of brittle Homalite-100. The layers were bonded using Loctite Depend 330 adhesive, and a naturally sharp edge crack was introduced in one of the Homalite-100 layers. These single-edge notched specimens were loaded in dynamic three-point bending using a modified Hopkinson bar. The fracture process was imaged in real time using dynamic photoelasticity in conjunction with digital high-speed photography, and the applied load and load-point displacement histories were determined from the strain signals recorded at two locations on the Hopkinson bar. The results of this study indicated two distinct mechanisms of dynamic failure, depending on the applied loading rate. At lower loading rates, the starter crack arrested on reaching the aluminum layer and then caused delamination along the aluminum–Homalite interface. On the contrary, as the loading rate was increased, interfacial delamination was followed by crack re-initiation in the Homalite layer opposite to the initial starter crack. It was determined that the times required for crack initiation, delamination and crack re-initiation decreased as the loading rate was increased. However, it was also observed that the applied load values associated with each event increased with increasing loading rate. These observations indicate that both the dynamic failure process and plausibly the failure mode transition are affected by the rate-dependent properties of Homalite, aluminum and the interfacial bond. Finally, based on the measured peak loads and the observed failure mechanisms it was concluded that the incorporation of a thin ductile reinforcement layer can increase both the overall fracture toughness and strength of a nominally brittle material.     

Experimental investigation of mesoscale crack front triple line

The aim of this paper is to investigate the mesoscale behavior and structure of an adhesive near the fracture front of an asymmetric joint consisting of carbon fiber/epoxy resin composites bonded with a relatively soft, epoxy adhesive. A single cantilever beam fracture test at constant separation rate gave steady-state crack propagation, details of which were followed by digital image correlation (DIC). A deformed, triple line region was found between the adhesive, air, and the composite, somewhat resembling a “wetting ridge,” as found with a liquid meniscus in contact with a soft solid. Importantly, the partially separated bondline layer took part in (non-unidirectional) load transfer between adherends (and thus energy dissipation), contrary to common assumptions where the separated bondline is assumed no longer to play a structural role. A simple model, based on the Flamant contact mechanics approach, is proposed and compared with both a finite element solution and experimental data extracted from image correlation. The model points out the importance of two length scales: process zone extent and adhesive thickness, both being known to affect global properties of bonded structures.     

双层粘接板界面的超声非线性谐振特性分析

采用声-力-电类比建立粘接界面非线性力学行为的等效非线性振荡电路,以求解双层粘接板的超声非线性谐振频率。理论上导出非线性谐振频率方程,确定双层粘接板非线性谐振频率与激励幅度、三阶弹性劲度系数的解析关系。双层粘接铝板的超声实验发现:在不良粘接情形下,超声谐振频率发生偏移,其值大于粘接完好区,且激发了较强的三次谐波,但二次谐波幅度变化不大。实验结果表明三次谐波幅度上升,超声谐振频率也显著增大,与理论导出非线性谐振频率变化规律相吻合,且三次谐波与基波、二次谐波的比值反映了非线性谐振频率变化趋势,证实粘接层三阶劲度系数是产生非线性共振频率偏移的主要因素。      

Improving the adhesion between a aqueous PU and a polyamide fibre with silane

Glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GPS) and γ-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (APS) were used to modify the surface chemistry of polyamide fibre. The surface chemistry was characterised using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The silanol functional group was designed to be introduced on the surface of polyamide fibre to increase its chemical activity by N-alkylation of GPS and hydrolysis of APS, and to improve the poor interfacial adhesion between a polyamide 66 fibre and an aqueous polyurethane polymer adhesive. The microbond test was used to measure the interfacial shear strength between the waterborne PU adhesive and the polyamide fibre. It has been found that APS hydrolysis and GPS-alkylated fibre surface can be used to improve the interfacial adhesion of polyamide fibre to PU. The IFSS can be improved by N-alkylation of GPS from 5.0 to 8.4?MPa. After water immersion at 50?°C for 48?h, then drying, the IFSS increased to 8.8?MPa due to the plasticisation of PU in water. Better interfacial adhesion was also observed by the hydrolysis of APS, but not significantly improved by this method due to the relatively weak hydrogen bond at the interface between APS and polyamide fibre.     

SH ultrasonic guided waves for the evaluation of interfacial adhesion

Shear-Horizontally (SH) polarized, ultrasonic, guided wave modes are considered in order to infer changes in the adhesive properties at several interfaces located within an adhesive bond joining two metallic plates. Specific aluminium lap-joint samples were produced, with different adhesive properties at up to four interfaces when a glass–epoxy film is inserted into the adhesive bond. EMAT transducers were used to generate and detect the fundamental SH₀ mode. This is launched from one plate and detected at the other plate, past the lap joint. Signals are picked up for different propagation paths along each sample, in order to check measurement reproducibility as well as the uniformity of the adhesively bonded zones. Signals measured for four samples are then compared, showing very good sensitivity of the SH₀ mode to changes in the interfacial adhesive properties. In addition, a Finite Element-based model is used to simulate the experimental measurements. The model includes adhesive viscoelasticity, as well as spatial distributions of shear springs (with shear stiffness K_T) at both metal–adhesive interfaces, and also at the adhesive–film interfaces when these are present. This model is solved in the frequency domain, but temporal excitation and inverse FFT procedure are implemented in order to simulate the measured time traces. Values of the interfacial adhesive parameters, K_T, are determined by an optimization process so that best fit is obtained between both sets of measured and numerically predicted waveforms. Such agreement was also possible by adjusting the shear modulus of the adhesive component. This work suggests a promising use of SH-like guided modes for quantifying shear properties at adhesive interfaces, and shows that such waves can be used for inferring adhesive and cohesive properties of bonds separately. Finally, the paper considers improvements that could be made to the process, and its potential for testing the interfacial adhesion of adhesively bonded composite components.