异质型BiOI/NaBiO_3光催化剂的合成及其光催化性能

根据表面化学蚀刻原理采用加热冷凝回流的方法制备了一系列组成的异质结构BiOI/NaBiO3光催化剂。利用X射线粉末衍射(XRD)、扫描电子显微镜(SEM)和紫外-可见漫反射光谱(UV-Vis-DRS)等技术对其晶相结构、微观形貌和光吸收性能进行了表征。光催化实验表明,BiOI/NaBiO3在可见光下可以有效降解罗丹明B(RhB),当BiOI与NaBiO3的物质的量分数为一定值时,异质结构的光催化剂明显优于单一组分的光催化活性。通过加入不同的牺牲剂及荧光实验结果推测了该异质结构材料的光催化机理,并且分析了其光生载流子的传输方向及光催化过程的活性物种。研究表明,BiOI/NaBiO3的催化活性增强主要归结为两者之间形成了有效的异质结构,其内建电场能够促进光生载流子的分离,同时光生空穴h+在光催化降解过程中是主要的活性物种。     

新颖CdMoO4/g-C3N4复合材料的制备及其可见光增强的电荷分离和光催化活性（英文）

半导体光催化技术因其能够完全矿化和降解废水以及废气中的各种有机和无机污染物而受到越来越多研究者关注.尽管TiO2作为光催化剂显示了良好的应用前景,但其只对紫外光响应,该部分能量大约仅占太阳光谱的5%,从而限制了其实际应用.因此,开发新型可见光响应光催化剂成为光催化领域的研究焦点之一.石墨相氮化碳(g-C3N4)作为一种光催化材料,由于具有良好的热和化学稳定性以及可见光响应而备受关注.然而,单纯的g-C3N4由于光生电荷载流子易复合,光催化效果并不理想.为进一步提高g-C3N4的光催化活性,构建g-C3N4基异质结复合光催化材料被认为是增强g-C3N4光生电子-空穴分离效率的有效方法.CdMoO4作为一种光催化材料,与g-C3N4匹配的能带有利于光生电子-空穴的分离,从而提高g-C3N4的光催化活性.本文通过便利的原位沉淀-煅烧过程,制备了新颖的CdMoO4/g-C3N4异质复合光催化材料.复合材料的晶相构成、形貌、表面化学组分和光学特性等通过相应的分析测试手段进行表征.光催化活性通过可见光下催化降解罗丹明B水溶液来评价.结果显示,将CdMoO4沉积在g-C3N4表面形成复合材料可明显提高光催化活性,且当CdMoO4含量为4.8 wt%时达到最佳的光催化活性.这种显著增强的光催化活性可能是由于CdMoO4/g-C3N4复合物能够有效地传输和分离光生电荷载流子,从而抑制了光生电子-空穴的复合.电化学阻抗、瞬态光电流和稳定荧光光谱测试结果证实,通过CdMoO4与g-C3N4复合可有效增强电荷分离效率.此外,活性物捕获实验表明,在光催化过程中空穴(h+)和超氧自由基(?O2?)是主要活性物种.根据莫托-肖特基实验并结合紫外-可见漫反射吸收光谱,得到了单纯g-C3N4和CdMoO4的能带结构,提出了形成的II型异质结有助于增强光催化活性的机理.     

异质型BiOI/NaBiO3光催化剂的合成及其光催化性能

根据表面化学蚀刻原理采用加热冷凝回流的方法制备了一系列组成的异质结构BiOI/NaBiO₃光催化剂.利用X射线粉末衍射(XRD)、扫描电子显微镜(SEM)和紫外-可见漫反射光谱(UV-Vis-DRS)等技术对其晶相结构、微观形貌和光吸收性能进行了表征.光催化实验表明,BiOI/NaBiO₃在可见光下可以有效降解罗丹明B(RhB),当BiOI与NaBiO₃的物质的量分数为一定值时,异质结构的光催化剂明显优于单一组分的光催化活性.通过加入不同的牺牲剂及荧光实验结果推测了该异质结构材料的光催化机理,并且分析了其光生载流子的传输方向及光催化过程的活性物种.研究表明,BiOI/NaBiO₃的催化活性增强主要归结为两者之间形成了有效的异质结构,其内建电场能够促进光生载流子的分离,同时光生空穴h⁺在光催化降解过程中是主要的活性物种.     

金属硫化物基异质结光催化剂:原理、影响、应用和原位表征（英文）

金属硫化物的窄带隙使其具有吸收可见光和红外光的优势,因此可以用于开发高效的光催化剂.同时,金属硫化物具有出色的电荷分离、较强的光还原能力和低氧化还原能垒.然而,单一金属硫化物通常具有光吸收强度不高和电子-空穴快速复合的问题.在仅考虑光吸收范围时,应选择带隙较窄的光催化剂,但其氧化还原能力较低.此外,金属硫化物易发生光腐蚀.近年来,研究发现,在两种及以上光催化剂间构建异质结可以抑制单一催化剂载流子的复合,促使电子与空穴的分离;同时,异质结光催化剂也被证实可以提高光吸收和增加反应活性位点,是解决金属硫化物自身不足的重要措施.本文总结了金属硫化物用于光催化反应的优势和缺陷,讨论了构建异质结对单一金属硫化物的影响.不同的合成方法对于异质结光催化剂的形貌结构及性能具有重要影响,列举了一些金属硫化物异质结合成方法实例,例如水热合成法、离子交换法、静电纺丝法和原位光化学沉积法等.异质结光催化剂的种类可以根据电子转移机理分为肖特基结、type Ⅱ型、Z型和S型异质结等.随后,概述了金属硫化物异质结在环境和能源领域的应用,比较了不同类型金属硫化物异质结的光催化活性.充分利用光生电子和空穴分别驱动氧化和还...     

花状ZnO/ZnS异质结构的简易合成、结构表征及光催化活性

采用简便的两步溶液相化学方法,在较低温度下(80℃),制备出了花状的ZnO/ZnS异质结构。分别利用X射线衍射、X射线光电子能谱仪、扫描电子显微镜、透射电子显微镜、紫外-可见光谱仪等测试手段对所制备的样品进行表征,结果表明ZnO/ZnS异质结构是由花状ZnO纳米结构和ZnS纳米粒子组成。在光降解罗丹明B(RhB)的测试中,ZnO/ZnS异质结构样品体现出了比ZnO前驱物和商业P25光催化剂更高的光催化效率,这主要可归因于异质结构更有利于电子-空穴的有效分离。ZnO/ZnS光催化剂体现出良好的循环稳定性。     

表面组装钴物种同时促进Cd0.9Zn0.1S光催化剂的界面电荷分离和表面反应

利用人工光合成将太阳能转化为化学燃料是太阳能利用的重要途径,具有广阔的应用前景,其中,太阳能光催化分解水制氢是最为关键的反应之一.但是,大多数半导体光催化材料面临着光生电荷分离困难和表面催化反应速率慢等挑战.本文以具有可见光响应的半导体光催化剂Cd0.9Zn0.1S(CZS)纳米棒为研究模型,利用水热法成功在其表面上均...     

原位溶解-沉积法制备高可见光活性BiOI/Bi2O3光催化剂

以Bi2O3为前驱体,通过原位溶解-沉积法在KI溶液中制备了BiOI/Bi2O3光催化剂。用X射线衍射(XRD)、扫描电子显微镜(SEM)和紫外-可见漫反射光谱(UV-Vis DRS)等对样品进行了表征。结果表明Bi2O3球形颗粒紧密地贴在BiOI片上。随着KI溶液pH值的降低,Bi2O3逐渐转变为BiOI,且样品的吸收带边逐渐红移。在可见光(λ≥420 nm)下降解甲基橙,在pH=3下制备的BiOI/Bi2O3的活性最强,其原因是BiOI/Bi2O3 p-n异质结促进了光生载流子的分离。     

BiOI上Bi单质和缺陷的协同作用:增强的光催化NO去除和转化途径

Bi OI具有独特的层状结构及较窄的带隙,是具有可见光响应的光催化剂.然而,高光生载流子复合率抑制了其光催化活性.大量研究表明,氧缺陷不但是催化剂表面最具活性的位点,而且可以通过减小禁带宽度扩大光响应范围.与此同时,氧缺陷也可以作为光致电荷陷阱,抑制电子-空穴复合,并作为电荷转移到吸附物种的吸附位点.金属的表面等离子体共振(SPR)效应为半导体材料更高效的光吸收和利用提供了一条崭新的途径,从而可以获得更好的太阳光转换和光催化效率.然而, SPR效应和由氧缺陷引起的多个中间能级协同作用还未被探究.本文研究了利用金属铋的SPR效应和引入缺陷共同提高BiOI的光催化性能.通过部分还原BiOI制备出具有较高可见光催化去除氮氧化物活性的Bi@缺陷型BiOI,研究了还原剂用量对Bi@缺陷型Bi OI光催化性能的影响.发现用2 mmol还原剂Na BH4制备的光催化剂(Bi/BiOI-2)具有最高效的可见光催化活性.XRD、XPS、SEM和TEM表征表明Bi单质沉积在Bi OI表面,整个体系由纳米片自组装为海绵状立体结构.BET比表面积增大,结合SEM推测是由纳米片的分层堆叠造成的.UV-DRS表明带隙宽度仅有1.8 eV的Bi OI具有可见光响应.EPR和态密度(DOS)结合可以证明氧缺陷及其激发多个中间能级的存在.中间能级可以促进电子在可见光下从价带到导带的转移.PL表明体系中Bi金属的SPR效应所激发的电磁场可以促进光生载流子的分离.通过DFT理论计算催化剂的电子结构,差分、电子局域函数(ELF)及电势表明Bi单质和Bi-O层间强的共价作用形成一个通道,使得热电子从较高电势的Bi单质向相对低电势的Bi OI传递, Bi单质PDOS的计算证明价带变宽归因于Bi元素轨道的贡献, Bi的SPR效应激发Bi OI的电子到更高能级并聚集在价带顶,这有利于光生载流子的分离.ESR表明提升的电荷分离和迁移率促进了羟基和超氧自由基的产生.结合表征及理论计算结果,活性的增强可归因于金属Bi和氧空位的协同效应.氧缺陷激发的中间能级促进了电荷转移, Bi金属的SPR效应使可见光吸收效率提高并且促进了光生载流子分离,这些是增强光催化性能的关键因素.此外,采用原位红外光谱法(FT-IR)对Bi/BiOI-2的NO吸附和反应过程进行了动态监测.根据中间产物分析和DFT计算结果,提出了金属Bi和氧空位协同作用提高Bi/BiOI光催化性能的机理.本研究为高性能光催化剂的设计和理解空气净化光催化反应机理提供了新的思路.     

PbTiO3/SrTiO3(010)异质界面上的周期性失配位错及电子富集

It is important to determine the effects of misfit dislocations and other defects on the domain structure, ferroelectricity, conductivity, and other physical properties of ferroelectric thin films to understand their ferroelectric and piezoelectric behaviors. Much attention has been given to ferroelectric PbTiO₃/SrTiO₃ or PbZr_0.2Ti_0.8O₃/SrTiO₃ heterointerfaces, at which improper ferroelectricity, a spin-polarized two-dimensional electron gas, and other physical phenomena have been found. However, those heterointerfaces were all (001) planes, and there has been no experimental studies on the growth of (010) PbTiO₃/SrTiO₃ heterointerface due to the 6.4% misfit between two materials. In this study, we selected an atomically flat (010) PbTiO₃/SrTiO₃ heterointerface grown using a two-step hydrothermal method as the research subject, and this is the first experimental report on that interface. Interfacial dislocations can play a significant role in causing dramatic changes in the Curie temperature and polarization distribution near the dislocation cores, especially when the size of a ferroelectric thin film is scaled down to the nanoscale. The results of previous studies on the effects of interfacial dislocations on the physical properties of ferroelectric thin films have been contradictory. Thus, this issue needs to be explored more deeply in the future. This study used aberration corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) to study the atomic structure of a (010) PbTiO₃/SrTiO₃ heterointerface and found periodic misfit dislocations with a Burgers vector of a[001]. The extra planes at the dislocation cores could relieve the misfit strain between the two materials in the [001] direction and thus allowed the growth of such an atomically sharp heterointerface. Moreover, monochromated electron energy-loss spectroscopy with an atomic scale spatial resolution and high energy resolution was used to explore the charge distribution near the periodic misfit dislocation cores. The fine structure of the Ti L edge was quantitatively analyzed by linearly fitting the experimental spectra recorded at various locations near and at the misfit dislocation cores with the Ti³⁺ and Ti⁴⁺ reference spectra. Therefore, the accurate valence change of Ti could be determined, which corresponded to the charge distribution. The probable existence of an aggregation of electrons was found near the a[001] dislocation cores, and the density of the electrons calculated from the valence change was 0.26 electrons per unit cell. Based on an analysis of the fine structure of the oxygen K edge, it could be argued that the electrons aggregating at the dislocation cores came from the oxygen vacancies in the interior regions of the PbTiO₃. This aggregation of electrons will probably increase the electron conductivity along the dislocation line. The physics of two-dimensional charge distributions at oxide interfaces have been intensively studied, however, little attention had been given to the one-dimensional charge distribution. Therefore, the results of this study can stimulate research interest in exploring the influence of the interfacial dislocations on the physics of ferroelectric heterointerfaces.     

原位水热合成SrTiO3/TiO2复合纳米纤维及光催化性能

以利用静电纺丝技术制备的TiO2纳米纤维为模板和反应物,原位水热合成了具有异质结构的SrTiO3/TiO2复合纳米纤维.采用X射线衍射(XRD)、扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、能量散射光谱(EDS)、高分辨透射电子显微镜( HRTEM)和X射线光电子能谱(XPS)等测试手段对样品的结构和形貌进行了表征.用罗丹明B(RB)模...     

Fabrication of PET/BiOI/SnO2 heterostructure nanocomposites for enhanced visible-light photocatalytic activity

Heterojunction BiOI/SnO₂ nanocomposites have been facilely synthesized by using successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR) and a hydrothermal method, and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) nanofibers (NFs) were utilized as a photocatalyst carrier to support the BiOI/SnO₂ nanocomposites. PET/BiOI/SnO₂ NFs displayed excellent photocatalytic ability towards methyl orange (MO) and tetracycline (TC) under visible light irradiation. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) were employed to investigate the morphology, crystal structure and chemical state of the PET/BiOI/SnO₂ nanofibers. Photoluminescence (PL) and active species trapping experiments indicated that photoinduced charge separation promoted the formation of holes (h⁺) and superoxide radicals (•O²_-). Moreover, a photodegradation mechanism was proposed to illustrate that the formation of a Fermi level equilibrium state between semiconductors accelerated charge separation in the semiconductor. This study is meaningful for providing new inspiration to design and fabricate novel heterostructure photocatalysts with enhanced photocatalytic activity.     

Novel CaCO3/g-C3N4 composites with enhanced charge separation and photocatalytic activity

A novel CaCO₃/graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) photocatalyst was synthesized for the first time via a facile calcination method using CaCO₃ and melamine as precursors. The as-prepared samples were characterized using various techniques, such as scanning and transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis, as well as Fourier-transform infrared, X-ray photoelectron, photoluminescence, and UV–vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. The results of the experiments confirm the successful coupling of CaCO₃ to g-C₃N₄. The photocatalytic activity of the synthesized CaCO₃/g-C₃N₄ composites was evaluated by assessing their performance in the photocatalytic degradation of crystal violet (CV) in water under visible light irradiation. The analysis shows that CaCO₃/g-C₃N₄ exhibits higher photocatalytic activity towards CV degradation (76.0%) than pristine g-C₃N₄ (21.6%) and CaCO₃ (23.2%). Radical trapping and electron spin resonance experiments show that hydroxyl radicals (OH) and holes (h⁺) are the key reactive species in the photocatalytic process. The enhanced photocatalytic activity of the composite is mainly attributed to the efficient separation rate of electron-hole pairs achieved through the incorporation of CaCO₃.     

Cascaded electron transition in CuWO_4/CdS/CDs heterostructure accelerating charge separation towards enhanced photocatalytic activity

CuWO_4,as an n-type oxide semiconductor with a bandgap of 2.2 eV,has stimulated enormous interest as a potential broad-spectrum-active photocatalyst for environmental pollution remediations.However,rapid charge recombination greatly hinders its practical applications.Herein,we present a cascaded electron transition pathway in a ternary heterostructure consisting of CdS quantum dots,carbon dots(CDs) and CuWO_4 hollow spheres,which proves to greatly facilitate the photogenerated electron-hole separation,and eventually boosts the degradation efficiency of phenol and congo red by 100% and 46%compared to bare CuWO_4.The enhanced performance of the CuWO_4/CdS/CDs heterostructure mainly originates from the unidirectional electron migration from CdS to CuWO_4 and then to the organics through CDs.This work elucidates the electron transfer kinetics in multi-phase system and provides a new design paradigm for optimizing the properties of CuWO_4 based photocatalysts.     

A carbon-rich g-C3N4 with promoted charge separation for highly efficient photocatalytic degradation of amoxicillin

A novel carbon-rich g-C₃N₄ nanosheets with large surface area was prepared by facile thermal polymerization method using urea and 1,3,5-cyclohexanetriol. Plenty of carbon-rich functional groups were introduced into the surface layers of g-C₃N₄, which constructed the built-in electric field (BIEF) and resulted in improved charge separation; therefore, the carbon-rich g-C₃N₄ displayed superior photocatalytic activity for amoxicillin degradation under solar light. The contaminant degradation mechanism was proposed based on radical quenching experiments, intermediates analysis and density functional theory (DFT) calculation. Moreover, the reusing experiments showed the high stability of the material, and the amoxicillin degradation under various water matrix parameters indicated its high applicability on pollutants treatment, all of which demonstrated its high engineering application potentials.     

A Bi/BiOI/(BiO)2CO3 heterostructure for enhanced photocatalytic NO removal under visible light

Narrow-band BiOI photocatalysts usually suffer from low photocatalysis efficiency under visible light exposure because of rapid charge recombination. In this work, to overcome this deficiency of photosensitive BiOI, oxygen vacancies, Bi particles, and Bi₂O₂CO₃ were co-induced in BiOI via a facile in situ assembly method at room temperature using NaBH₄ as the reducing agent. In the synthesized ternary Bi/BiOI/(BiO)₂CO₃, the oxygen vacancies, dual heterojunctions (i.e., Bi/BiOI and BiOI/(BiO)₂CO₃), and surface plasmon resonance effect of the Bi particles contributed to efficient electron-hole separation and an increase in charge carrier concentration, thus boosting the overall visible light photocatalysis efficiency. The as-prepared catalysts were applied for the removal of NO in concentrations of parts per billion from air in continuous air flow under visible light illumination. Bi/BiOI/(BiO)₂CO₃ exhibited a highly enhanced NO removal ratio of 50.7%, much higher than that of the pristine BiOI (1.2%). Density functional theory calculations and experimental results revealed that the Bi/BiOI/(BiO)₂CO₃ composites promoted the production of reactive oxygen species for photocatalytic NO oxidation. Thus, this work provides a new strategy to modify narrow-band semiconductors and explore other bismuth-containing heterostructured visible-light-driven photocatalysts.     

Achieving UV and visible-light photocatalytic activity enhancement of AgI/BiOIO3 heterostructure:Decomposition for diverse industrial contaminants and high mineralization ability

Heterostructure photocatalyst fabrication is of great significance for promoting the photoreactivity and solar-energy utilization efficiencies. In this work, AgI/BiOIO_3 heterostructure photocatalysts are synthesized by a facile in-situ crystallization of AgI on BiOIO_3. The photocatalytic performance is first surveyed by decomposition of model dye methyl orange(MO) separately with illumination of UV light and visible-light(λ 420 nm). It indicates that AgI/BiOIO_3 shows highly improved photocatalytic activity regardless of the light source, which should be attributed to the matchable band energy levels between AgI and BiOIO_3, benefiting the efficient charge separation. Notably, AgI/BiOIO_3 shows a universal photocatalytic activity for treating diverse antibiotics and phenols, including tetracycline hydrochloride,chlortetracycline hydrochloride, 2,4-dichlorophenol(2,4-DCP), phenol and bisphenol A(BPA), and the strong mineralization ability of AgI/BiOIO_3 was also demonstrated. Additionally, the different mechanisms under UV and visible light irradiation are investigated in detail. This work provides a new reference for design and manipulation of high-performance nonselective heterostructure photocatalyst for environmental purification.     

新型BiOI/g-C3N4纳米片复合光催化剂的制备及其可见光催化活性增强

近年来, 石墨型氮化碳(g-C3N4)作为一种n型半导体光催化剂材料, 由于具有较好的热稳定性和化学稳定性, 同时具有可调的带隙结构和优异的表面性质而备受人们关注. 然而, 传统的g-C3N4块体材料存在比表面积小、光响应范围窄和光生载流子易复合等缺陷, 制约着其光催化活性的进一步提高. 因此, 人们开发了多种技术对块体状g-C3N4材料进行改性,其中构建基于g-C3N4纳米薄片的异质结复合光催化材料被认为是强化g-C3N4载流子分离效率, 进而提高其可见光催化活性的重要手段. BiOI作为一种窄带隙的p型半导体光催化剂, 具有强的可见光吸收能力和较高的光催化活性, 同时它与g-C3N4纳米薄片具有能级匹配的带隙结构. 因此, 基于以上两种半导体材料的特性, 构建新型的BiOI/g-C3N4纳米片复合光催化剂材料不仅能够有效提高g-C3N4的可见光利用率, 而且还可以在n型g-C3N4和p型BiOI界面间形成内建电场, 极大促进光生电子-空穴对的分离与迁移效率.为此, 本文通过简单的一步溶剂热法在g-C3N4纳米薄片表面原位生长BiOI纳米片材料, 成功制备了新型的BiOI/g-C3N4纳米片复合光催化剂. 利用X射线衍射仪(XRD), 场发射扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、透射电子显微镜(TEM)、紫外-可见漫反射光谱和瞬态光电流响应谱对所合成复合光催化剂的晶体结构、微观形貌、光吸收性能和电荷分离性能进行了表征测试. XRD, SEM和TEM结果显示, 结晶完好的BiOI呈小片状均匀分散在g-C3N4纳米薄片表面; 紫外漫反射光谱表明, 纳米片复合材料的吸光性能较g-C3N4薄片有显著提升; 瞬态光电流测试证明, 复合材料较单一材料有更好的电荷分离与迁移性能.在可见光催化降解RhB的测试中, BiOI/g-C3N4纳米片复合光催化剂显示出了优异的催化活性和稳定性, 其光降解活性分别为纯BiOI和g-C3N4的34.89和1.72倍; 自由基捕获实验发现, 反应过程中的主要活性物种为超氧自由基(·O2-), 即光生电子主导整个降解反应的发生. 由此可见, 强的可见光吸收能力和g-C3N4与BiOI界面处形成的内建电场协同促进了g-C3N4纳米薄片的电荷分离, 进而显著提高了该复合材料的可见光催化降解活性. 此外, 本文初步验证了在BiOI/g-C3N4纳米片复合光催化体系内光生电荷是依据"双向转移"机制进行分离和迁移的, 而非"Z型转移"机制.     

Microwave-assisted preparation and enhanced photocatalytic activity of Bi2WO6/BiOI heterojunction for organic pollutants degradation under visible-light irradiation

In this research, we adopted morphology control and constructing p-n heterojunction to boost the photocatalytic performance of BiOI. BiOI with three morphologies (nanoplate, micro-flower, microsphere) was fabricated via a wet-chemical method at room temperature using different solvents. And Bi₂WO₆/BiOI microspheres were successfully prepared by a microwave-assisted synthetic method. The as-synthesized samples were characterized by X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) and High-resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HRTEM). The results of photo-degradation experiment demonstrated that BiOI-3 and BWOI-3 show high photocatalytic performance towards methyl orange (MO) and bisphenol A (BPA) degradation due to the high specific surface area, synergistic effect between p-type BiOI and n-type Bi₂WO₆ and high separation efficiency of electron-hole pairs, which is verified by Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), Photocurrent (PC) and Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) analysis. Moreover, the repeated photocatalytic experiment was carried out by using MO as the representative organic pollutant, manifesting the good durability of the sample.