Micro-plasticity of surface steps under adhesive contact: Part II—Multiple-dislocation mediated contact hardening

The study of micro-plastic behavior of rough surface contacts is the critical link towards a fundamental understanding of contact, friction, adhesion, and surface failures at small length scales. In the companion paper (Yu, H.H., Shrotriya, P., Gao, Y.F., Kim, K.-S., 2007. Micro-plasticity of surface steps under adhesive contact. Part I. Surface yielding controlled by single-dislocation nucleation. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 55, 489–516), we have studied the onset of surface yielding due to single-dislocation nucleation from a stepped surface under adhesive contact. Here we analyze the contact hardening behavior due to multiple dislocations in a two-dimensional dislocation model. Continuum micro-mechanical analyses are used to derive the configurational force on the dislocation, while a modified Rice–Thomson criterion is used to model dislocation nucleation. Dislocations nucleated from the surface step are stabilized and pile up as a result of the balance between the resolved driving force and the non-zero lattice resistance in the solid. The dislocation pileup will exert a strong back stress to prevent further dislocation nucleation and thus lead to the contact hardening behavior, the degree of which depends on the slip-plane orientation. Particularly, we find that dislocation interactions between two slip planes can make the contact loading order-of-magnitude easy to nucleate multiple dislocations, which is thus named “latent softening”. A mechanistic explanation shows that the latent softening is closely related to the stress-concentration mode mixity at the surface step. Dislocation nucleation will modify the geometric characteristics of the surface step, so that the contact-induced stress state near the step, as described by the mode mixity, changes, which influences the subsequent dislocation nucleation. Our calculations show that the dislocation pileup on one slip plane can even cause the spontaneous dislocation nucleation on the other slip plane without further increase of the contact load. Furthermore, it is found that rough surface contacts at small length scale can lead to the dislocation segregation and the formation of a surface tensile sub-layer. The discrete-dislocation model presented here and in the companion paper provides novel insights in bridging the atomistic simulations and continuum plastic flow analysis of surface asperity contact.     

Micro-plasticity of surface steps under adhesive contact: Part I—Surface yielding controlled by single-dislocation nucleation

Mechanics of nano- and meso-scale contacts of rough surfaces is of fundamental importance in understanding deformation and failure mechanisms of a solid surface, and in engineering fabrication and reliability of small surface structures. We present a micro-mechanical dislocation model of contact-induced deformation of a surface step or ledge, as a unit process model to construct a meso-scale model of plastic deformations near and at a rough surface. This paper (Part I) considers onset of contact-induced surface yielding controlled by single-dislocation nucleation from a surface step. The Stroh formalism of anisotropic elasticity and conservation integrals are used to evaluate the driving force on the dislocation. The driving force together with a dislocation nucleation criterion is used to construct a contact-strength map of a surface step in terms of contact pressure, step height, surface adhesion and lattice resistance. Atomistic simulations of atomic surface-step indentation on a gold (1 0 0) surface have been also carried out with the embedded atom method. As predicted by the continuum dislocation model, the atomistic simulations also indicate that surface adhesion plays a significant role in dislocation nucleation processes. Instabilities due to adhesion and dislocation nucleation are evident. The atomistic simulation is used to calibrate the continuum dislocation nucleation criterion, while the continuum dislocation modeling captures the dislocation energetics in the inhomogeneous stress field of the surface-step under contact loading. Results show that dislocations in certain slip planes can be easily nucleated but will stay in equilibrium positions very close to the surface step, while dislocations in some other slip planes easily move away from the surface into the bulk. This phenomenon is called contact-induced near-surface dislocation segregation. As a consequence, we predict the existence of a thin tensile-stress sub-layer adjacent to the surface within the boundary layer of near-surface plastic deformation. In the companion paper (Part II), we analyze the surface hardening behavior caused by multiple dislocations.     

Surface versus bulk nucleation of dislocations during contact

The indentation of single crystals by a periodic array of flat rigid contacts is analyzed using discrete dislocation plasticity. Plane strain analyses are carried out with the dislocations all of edge character and modeled as line singularities in a linear elastic solid. The limiting cases of frictionless and perfectly sticking contacts are considered. The effects of contact size, dislocation source density, and dislocation obstacle density and strength on the evolution of the mean indentation pressure are explored, but the main focus is on contrasting the response of crystals having dislocation sources on the surface with that of crystals having dislocation sources in the bulk. When there are only bulk sources, the mean contact pressure for sufficiently large contacts is independent of the friction condition, whereas for sufficiently small contact sizes, there is a significant dependence on the friction condition. When there are only surface dislocation sources the mean contact pressure increases much more rapidly with indentation depth than when bulk sources are present and the mean contact pressure is very sensitive to the strength of the obstacles to dislocation glide. Also, on unloading a layer of tensile residual stress develops when surface dislocation sources dominate.     

抽油杆表面感应淬火引起的残余应力

本文讨论了抽油杆通过感应线圈和水冷装置时的温度场和由温度场引起的相变。在有限元计算中，通过与实验数据对比，认为考虑温度对弹性模量有影响的计算模型更合理，并用此模型计算了由温度和相变共同作用的弹塑性应力场，及最终的残余应力。结果表明淬火层超过一定厚度后，残余应力分布的合理性降低；淬火前抽油杆的强度与残余应力的大小关系较弱。     

脊状表面减阻机理研究

针对脊状表面流场的特点,通过实验测量和数值模拟的方法对脊状表面微观流场进行了深入研究,获得了脊状表面湍流边界层的时均速度分布曲线、湍流度分布曲线和微观流场结构.为了得到脊状结构对壁面物性的影响,对脊状表面进行了疏水性测试,获得了液滴在脊状表面上的表观接触角,并通过水洞试验验证了脊状表面的减阻效果.研究表明,与光滑表面相比,脊状表面微观流场结构中存在"二次涡",近壁区的黏性底层厚度比平板的要厚得多,湍流度显著降低,且脊状表面表现出明显的疏水性.由此提出了基于壁面隔离效应、增大湍流阻尼效应和改变壁面物性效应的减阻机理.     

Thickness effects in polycrystalline thin films: Surface constraint versus interior constraint

The uniaxial tension behavior of polycrystalline thin films, in which all grain boundaries (GBs) are penetrable by dislocations, is investigated by two-dimensional discrete dislocation dynamics (DDD) method with a penetrable dislocation-GB interaction model. In order to study thickness effect on the tensile strength of thin films with and without surface treatment, three types of thin films are comparatively considered, including the thin films without surface treatment, with surface passivation layers (SPLs) of nanometer thickness and with surface grain refinement zones (SGRZs) consisting of nano-sized grains. Our results show that thickness effects and their underlying dislocation mechanisms are quite distinct among different types of thin films. The thicker thin films without surface treatment are stronger than the thinner ones; however, opposite thickness effects are captured in the thin films with SPLs or SGRZs. Moreover, the underlying dislocation mechanisms of the same thickness effects of thin films with SPLs and SGRZs are different. In the thin films with SPLs, the thickness effect is caused by the sharp increase of dislocation density near the film-passivation interface, while it is mainly due to the sharp decrease of dislocation density within the refined surface grains of the thin films with SGRZs. No matter in what type of thin films, thickness effect gradually disappears when the number of grains in the thickness direction is large enough. Our analysis reveals that general mechanism of those thickness effects lies in the competition between the exterior surface-constraint and interior GB-constraint on gliding dislocations.     

两种激光熔覆涂层对轮轨材料磨损与损伤性能的影响

选用钴基合金粉末和铁基合金粉末，利用CO₂多模激光器对轮轨材料进行激光熔覆处理. 分析了钴基合金涂层和铁基合金涂层的微观组织、成分、硬度与应力状态. 未处理试样表面残余应力为拉应力，激光熔覆处理后，涂层表面残余应力为压应力. 利用MJP-30A滚动接触疲劳试验机对激光熔覆处理前后轮轨试样进行滚动摩擦磨损试验. 结果表明:激光熔覆处理后轮轨试样磨损率明显降低，其中激光熔覆钴基合金后，轮轨试样磨损率分别降低96.7%和98.9%，激光熔覆铁基合金后，轮轨试样磨损率分别降低81.7%和93.5%. 未处理轮轨试样表面损伤为疲劳损伤；钴基合金涂层表面损伤最轻微，磨痕表面光滑，出现轻微的小块剥落；铁基合金涂层表面出现细小裂纹和犁沟.      

基于树脂层强度预测分层萌生载荷

 轴向拉伸下的层合板在自由边缘附近存在奇异应力场，容易产生分层萌生进而导致结构破坏．而大多数基于材料力学方法的分层萌生研究对强度参数的确定有较强的主观性，缺乏合理解释．本文通过在层间插入一定厚度的树脂层，将分层萌生视为层间树脂层在三维应力状态下的强度破坏，根据有明确试验标准的树脂强度和Mohr 判据判断是否发生分层萌生．采用Pipes-Pagano 的均匀轴向拉伸模型计算应力场，对层间应力与树脂层面外应力进行了对比．取临界长度为4 个单层板厚度对T800/914 层合板的分层萌生进行了预测，结果表明预测值与实验值吻合良好．     

Symmetrical contact problem of a thick transversely isotropic plate

The symmetrical problem of the contact between a spherical indenter and a thick transversely isotropic plate is solved using the techniques of the Hankel transform. Solutions are written as the sums of the associated half-space solution and plate thickness effect terms. The normalized normal contact stress and the surface radial stress are obtained and calculated numerically for both composite materials and metallic substances. The example materials give both real and complex characteristic roots. A general method of calculation is described to determine the maximum tensile radial stress and the maximum compressive normal contact stress.The plate thickness effects on the contact stress and on the tensile radial stress are shown to be increasingly important with decreasing thickness. The effects that the material anisotropy has on the magnification of the contact stress and the maximum tensile radial stress are clearly revealed in the numerical results presented. The effects of material anisotropy for the composite are compared to those for the metallic substances.     

Buckling of delaminated bi-layer beam-columns

An improved analytical model is presented to analyze the delamination buckling of a bi-layer beam-column with a through-the-width delamination. Both the transverse shear deformation and local delamination tip deformations are taken into consideration, and two delaminated sub-layers as well as two substrates in the intact (un-delaminated) regions are modeled as individual Timoshenko beams. A deformable interface is introduced to establish the continuity condition between the two substrates in the intact regions. Consequently, a flexible joint is formed at the delamination tip, and it is different from the conventional rigid joint given in most of studies in the literature, in which the local delamination tip deformations are completely ignored. In contrast to the local delamination buckling in our previous study (Qiao et al., 2010), the present model accounts for the global deformations of the intact region in the delaminated composite beam-column, thus capable of capturing the buckling mode shape transitions from the global, to global–local coexistent, and to local buckling for asymmetric delamination as the interface delamination increases. Good agreement of the present analytical solutions with the full 2-D elastic finite element analysis demonstrates the local deformation effects around the delamination tip and verifies the accuracy of the present model. Parametric studies are conducted to investigate the effects of loading eccentricity, delaminated sub-layer thickness ratio, and interface compliance on the critical buckling load for the delaminated composite beam-column. Transitions of buckling modes from the global to local delamination buckling are also disclosed as the thickness of one sub-layer reduces from the thick sub-layer to a thin film. The developed delamination buckling solution facilitates the design analysis and optimization of laminated composite structures, and it can be used with confidence in buckling analysis of delaminated composite structures.     

Suppression of edge cracking in layered ceramic composites by edge coating

A strategy is proposed to reduce surface tensile stresses that develop in ceramic microlaminate structures. As a specific example, surface stresses, which can lead to unwanted edge cracking, appear within a thin alumina/mullite layer bounded by thicker alumina layers after fabrication at some elevated temperature and subsequent cooling. A stress analysis is performed using the finite element method on a geometry in which the (edge) surface of the ceramic sandwich structure has been coated with an overlayer of the alumina/mullite material with thickness proportional to the initial buried layer thickness. These analyses show there is a critical thickness of the overlayer at which the surface tensile stresses can be reduced to zero. Stress concentration factors are calculated numerically for cracks propagating through this structure, and thus the resistance to surface cracking is quantified.     

nc-TiC/a-C纳米复合多层薄膜的制备及其摩擦学性能的研究

采用磁过滤阴极弧等离子体沉积技术,在单晶硅片上制备了不同亚层厚度和亚层弹性模量匹配的nc-Ti C/a-C纳米复合多层薄膜,采用X射线粉末衍射仪、扫描电子显微镜和透射电子显微镜对其微观结构进行表征,利用激光扫描仪对其内部应力进行测试,采用微摩擦磨损试验机表征薄膜的摩擦磨损性能,以考察多层结构设计对于薄膜机械性能的影响.结果表明:多层薄膜相对于单层薄膜可以有效降低膜层内应力,同时薄膜的减摩抗磨性能也得到了提高.亚层厚度为40 nm和相邻亚层弹性模量差距较小的nc-Ti C/a-C纳米复合多层薄膜的抗磨性能最佳.     

表面机械滚压处理(SMRT)316L不锈钢梯度纳米层在腐蚀介质下的摩擦学行为研究

采用表面机械滚压处理(surface mechanical rolling treatment，SMRT)技术在316L奥氏体不锈钢表面构筑了梯度纳米结构层. 利用透射电子显微镜(TEM)和纳米压痕仪等分析其微观组织、力学性能等基础上，重点探讨了SMRT前后316L在1 mol/L HCl溶液(以纯水环境作为对比组)中的摩擦学行为. 结果表明:经SMRT加工后316L表面梯度纳米晶层厚度达200 μm以上，表面硬化层厚度超过1.5 mm，表面硬度提升至基体近2倍；SMRT大大减缓了材料磨损，与基体试样相比，SMRT试样在腐蚀介质下减摩效果比纯水环境更明显，且在腐蚀环境下表现出优异的耐腐蚀性能，其磨损机制由处理前伴随严重剥落特征的疲劳磨损和磨粒磨损转变为轻微疲劳磨损. 因此，316L不锈钢机械滚压梯度纳米层在腐蚀服役环境下具有较高的潜在工程应用价值.      

Residual-stress measurement using surface displacements around an indentation

An experimental method is described which can measure the direction and magnitude of residual and applied stress in metals. The method uses optical interference to measure the permanent surface deformation around a shallow spherical indentation in a polished area on the metal specimen. The deviation from circularly symmetrical surface deformations is measured at known values of applied stress in calibration specimens. This deviation from symmetry can then be used to determine the direction and magnitude of tensile residual stress in specimens of the same material. Determination of compressive residual stress is more limited. A model of the indentation process is offered which qualitatively describes experimental results in 4340 steel for both tensile and compressive stress. The model assumes that the deformation around an indentation os controlled by stresses analogous to those around a hole in an elastic plate. Various conditions are discussed which affect the indentation process and its use to measure stress, including (a) the rigidity of support of the indentor and specimen, (b) the size and depth of the indentation, (c) the uniaxial stress-strain behavior of the specimen material.     

A numerical and experimental investigation into residual stress in thermally sprayed coatings

This paper is concerned with an investigation into the thermal spray process and is particularly concerned with the residual stresses that arise when a steel-alloy coating is sprayed onto a copper-alloy substrate. This material combination was used recently to enhance the thermal and mechanical efficiency of the pressure die casting process. A difficulty with the spraying of steel on copper is the attainment of appreciable thickness of the coating due to debonding during the thermal spraying process. Prominent among possible causes of debonding is residual stress, which is the focus of the research presented in the paper. An investigation into the thermal spray process is performed using experimentation, simplified numerical modelling and finite element modelling. The development of residual stress for a range of process parameters, i.e. deposited layer thickness, interval of layer deposition and the number of layers in a coating (i.e. block deposition versus multilayer deposition for a desired coating thickness) is recorded. The results from the three investigation methods agreeably indicate a progressive change in average interfacial residual stress from compressive towards tensile with increase in thickness of deposited layer; and a tensile interfacial stress in a two-layer coating, which increases with increase in interval of deposition between the two layers. On the whole, the observations from the results suggest an increase in potential for coating debonding with increase in both deposited layer thickness and layer deposition interval. The results further suggest higher potential for coating debonding with block deposition compared to multilayer deposition for a desired coating thickness.     

等离子喷涂层接触疲劳失效模式及失效机理的研究

研究了等离子喷涂层在不同应力水平下的接触疲劳失效模式与声发射幅值的对应关系,并分析了涂层的接触疲劳失效机理.结果表明:声发射幅值与接触应力的大小无明显的关系,根据疲劳失效时的声发射幅值可以判断涂层接触疲劳失效模式,幅值为87～93 dB时易发生剥落或分层失效,幅值为78～83 dB易发生点蚀失效.涂层表面微凸体与轴承球滚压接触产生黏着磨损以及涂层、磨粒、轴承球三者形成的三体磨料磨损是点蚀失效产生的主要原因.剥落失效主要与涂层表面微观缺陷处裂纹的萌生、扩展以及表面磨损行为有关.层内分层失效是由涂层内部最大剪切应力控制的,而界面分层失效主要是由涂层与基体的低结合强度、热失配以及界面剪切应力造成的.     

曲率半径对车轮滚动接触疲劳性能的影响

滚动接触疲劳和磨损是铁路轮轨损伤的主要问题.本文中应用赫兹接触理论,在JD-1型轮轨模拟试验机上,通过改变试验冲角,研究了干态工况下曲率半径对车轮钢滚动接触疲劳性能的影响,并用光学显微镜和扫描电子显微镜观察车轮试样剖面与磨痕表面交界处的疲劳裂纹,分析不同曲率半径条件下车轮的滚动接触疲劳机理.结果表明:由于加工硬化的作用试验后所有试样的硬度均有提高;随着曲率半径的减小,车轮钢的磨损量增大,塑性流变层增厚且不均匀,车轮试样疲劳裂纹扩展加剧;裂纹在交变应力作用下容易继续向下扩展,从而形成严重的疲劳破坏.     

涂层厚度对喷涂层疲劳磨损寿命影响的实验研究

采用等离子喷涂制备了不同厚度的铁基涂层,采用扫描电子显微镜（SEM）表征了涂层内部和结合界面处的微观结构,采用球盘式疲劳磨损试验机分别考察了不同厚度涂层的疲劳磨损行为,采用Weibull分布分析并对比了涂层的疲劳磨损寿命。结果表明：适当地增加喷涂层的厚度可以避免整层分层失效的发生,而从在整体上提升涂层的疲劳磨损寿命。采用有限元分析（FEM）研究了涂层内部的应力分布,发现厚涂层界面剪切应力值不足薄涂层界面剪切应力的二分之一,可见显著降低界面剪切应力是较厚涂层拥有更好疲劳性能的主因。     

Edge-cracked bimaterial systems under thermal heating

The problem of thermoelastic edge-cracking in two-layered bimaterial systems subjected to convective heating is considered. The medium is assumed to be insulated on one surface and exposed to sudden convective heating on another surface containing the edge crack. It is known that, when a bimaterial system’s surface is heated, compressive stresses arise near the heating surface, forcing the crack surfaces together over a certain cusp-shaped contact length. It is also known that, for a cooled bimaterial systems surface, tensile stresses take place close to the cooling surface and tend to open the crack. So, the edge cracked heating surface problem is treated as an embedded crack with a smooth closure condition of the crack surfaces, with the crack contact length being an additional unknown variable. Superposition and uncoupled quasi-static thermoelasticity principles are adopted to formulate the problem. By using a Fourier integral transform technique, the mixed boundary value problem is reduced to a Cauchy type singular integral equation with an unknown function as the derivative of the crack surface displacement. The numerical results of the stress intensity factors for an edge crack and a crack terminating at the interface, are calculated and presented as a function of time, crack length, heat transfer coefficient, and thickness ratio for two different bimaterial systems, namely a stainless steel layer welded on ferritic steel and a ceramic layer coating on ferritic steel.