Development and optimisation of a novel three‐way extraction technique based on a combination of Soxhlet extraction,membrane assisted solvent extraction and a molecularly imprinted polymer using sludge polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as model compounds

A novel technique that integrates extraction and clean‐up into a single step format is reported as part of the search for new sample preparation techniques in the analysis of persistent organic pollutants from complex samples. This was achieved by combining the extraction efficiency of the Soxhlet extractor, the selectivity of a size exclusion membrane and the specificity of a molecularly imprinted polymer for the extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from wastewater sludge followed by quantitation using gas chromatography with time‐of‐flight mass spectrometry. The approach is described as the Soxhlet extraction membrane‐assisted solvent extraction molecularly imprinted polymer technique. This technique was optimised for various parameters such as extraction solvent, reflux time and membrane acceptor phase. The applicability of the developed technique was optimised using a wastewater sludge certified reference material and then tested on real wastewater sludge samples. The method detection limits ranged from 0.14 to 12.86 ng/g with relative standard deviation values for the extraction of the 16 US‐EPA priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from wastewater sludge samples ranging from 0.78 to 18%. The extraction process was therefore reproducible and showed remarkable selectivity. The developed technique is a promising prospect that can be applied in the analysis of organic pollutants from complex solid samples.     

Microwave assisted extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from atmospheric particulate samples

For several years, microwave assisted extraction (MAE) was applied to extract organic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls, etc., from soils, sediments and standard reference materials. Very few authors applied this methodology for the extraction of PAHs from atmospheric particulate matter. In the present study, MAE of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with hexane/acetone (1:1) from real atmospheric particulate samples was investigated and the effect of microwave energy and irradiation time studied. The yields of extracted compounds obtained by microwave irradiation were compared with those obtained using traditional Soxhlet extraction. MAE was evaluated using spiked real atmospheric particulate samples and two standard reference materials. Analytical determinations of PAHs were carried out by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet and fluorescence detection. The best recoveries were achieved with a microwave energy of 400 W and an irradiation time of 20 min.     

Optimization of microwave-assisted extraction of hydrocarbons in marine sediments: comparison with the Soxhlet extraction method

Microwave energy was applied to extract polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and linear aliphatic hydrocarbons (LAHs) from marine sediments. The influence of experimental conditions, such as different extracting solvents and mixtures, microwave power, irradiation time and number of samples extracted per run has been tested using real marine sediment samples; volume of the solvent, sample quantity and matrix effects were also evaluated. The yield of extracted compounds obtained by microwave irradiation was compared with that obtained using the traditional Soxhlet extraction. The best results were achieved with a mixture of acetone and hexane (1:1), and recoveries ranged from 92 to 106%. The extraction time is dependent on the irradiation power and the number of samples extracted per run, so when the irradiation power was set to 500 W, the extraction times varied from 6 min for 1 sample to 18 min for 8 samples. Analytical determinations were carried out by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with an ultraviolet-visible photodiode-array detector for PAHs and gas chromatography (GC) using a FID detector for LAHs. To test the accuracy of the microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) technique, optimized methodology was applied to the analysis of standard reference material (SRM 1941), obtaining acceptable results.     

Adsorption/Thermal Desorption with Tenax-GC for the Collection and Analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Chlorinated Compounds

A system for the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs) and chlorinated compounds in air by means of adsorption/thermal desorption(ATD) with small bed volume (0.1 g) Tenax cartridges, followed by cryogenic trap in a U-shaped stainless steel tube with liquid nitrogen as an appropriate concentration method prior to capillary gas chromatography is described. Recoveries were determined for the complete ATD method. Desorption recoveries near 100% were found for a variety of chlorinated compounds and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.     

Optimization of microwave-assisted extraction of hydrocarbons in marine sediments: comparison with the Soxhlet extraction method

Microwave energy was applied to extract polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and linear aliphatic hydrocarbons (LAHs) from marine sediments. The influence of experimental conditions, such as different extracting solvents and mixtures, microwave power, irradiation time and number of samples extracted per run has been tested using real marine sediment samples; volume of the solvent, sample quantity and matrix effects were also evaluated. The yield of extracted compounds obtained by microwave irradiation was compared with that obtained using the traditional Soxhlet extraction. The best results were achieved with a mixture of acetone and hexane ¶(1?:?1), and recoveries ranged from 92 to 106%. The extraction time is dependent on the irradiation power and the number of samples extracted per run, so when the irradiation power was set to 500 W, the extraction times varied from 6 min for 1 sample to 18 min for 8 samples. Analytical determinations were carried out by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with an ultraviolet-visible photodiode-array detector for PAHs and gas chromatography (GC) using a FID detector for LAHs. To test the accuracy of the microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) technique, optimized methodology was applied to the analysis of standard reference material (SRM 1941), obtaining acceptable results.     

Field Evaluation of N-Methyl-4-hydrazino-7-nitrobenzofurazan (MNBDH) Coated Silica Gel Cartridges for the Measurement of Lower Carbonyls in Air

A rapid analytical method based on Soxhlet extraction has been developed for determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in palm dates and tuna fish. The method is based on selected ion-storage gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. In the work discussed we were interested in the analysis of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) regarded by the EPA as priority pollutants. Soxhlet extraction of real, fortified, and blank samples, with hexane as solvent, was used to extract the analytes of interest. An excellent detection limit and good relative standard deviations (RSD) were obtained and analysis time was short. The linearity and sensitivity of the method for measurement of these analytes at trace levels are discussed.     

Advanced Methodologies for Adsorption/Thermal Desorption with Tenax-TA for the Analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Sulfur Compounds

We have evaluated an analytical method for the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and sulfur compounds in air by means of adsorption/temperature-programmed thermal desorption (ATPTD) with small bed volume (0.08g) Tenax-TA cartridges, followed by a cryogenic trap in a precolumn with liquid nitrogen as an appropriate concentration method before capillary gas chromatography is described. The enriched components from the adsorption cartridges are transferred to the capillary column with a valveless switching system. Recoveries were determined for the complete ATPTD method. Desorption recoveries near 100% were found for various of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and sulfur compounds. The sulfur compounds known to cause nuisance odors in the atmosphere near sulfur recovery and sewerage treatment works were also determined.     

Use of gas-liquid and thin-layer chromatography in characterising air pollutants by fluorometry

Relatively large amounts of alkylated derivatives of the polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons are present in some urban atmospheres. These compounds are believed to be derived from industrial sources. Because alkylation of the tetracyclic aromatic hydrocarbons can confer carcinogenic activity on the derivatives, the presence of substantial amounts of these alkylated compounds in the air needs thorough study. The R(F) value and the retention time, by themselves, are inadequate for characterisation of the polynuclear compounds. Gasliquid chromatography followed by fluorometric examination of the eluent bands, and mixed-adsorbent two-dimensional thin-layer chromatography followed by direct fluorometric examination are very useful in characterising all types of organic compound in the organic fractions of airborne particulates and effluents from air pollution sources.     

污水污泥流化床气化焦油的化学组成分析

以空气为气化剂、并通过GC-MS分析,研究了污水污泥流化床气化时气化温度（650、750和850 ℃）和污泥性质对污泥气化焦油产率及其化学组成的影响。结果表明,污泥气化焦油产率随气化温度的升高而降低,且厌氧消化污泥气化焦油的产率比未消化污泥的低。污泥气化焦油中的化学组成可分为五类：脂肪族化合物、脂环化合物、芳香烃、芳香烃衍生物和杂环化合物。随气化温度的升高,A²/O工艺的未消化污泥气化生成的焦油中脂肪族化合物和脂环化合物的产率均明显降低,芳香烃衍生物的产率则有显著地提高,而芳香烃和杂环化合物的产率均先增加后减少。气化温度为650 ℃时,活性污泥法消化污泥气化焦油中五类有机物的产率均低于未消化污泥的,而A²/O工艺消化污泥气化焦油中芳香烃产率高于未消化污泥的,其他四种有机物的产率则均低于未消化污泥的。     

Determination of Critical Micelle Concentration of Surfactant in Organic Solvent by Capillary Electrophoresis

In this work, some uncharged hydrophobic compounds, such as p-arylacetophenones, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and steroids have been separated by micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) using organic solvents and surfactants.     

Subcritical water extraction of organic matter from sedimentary rocks

Subcritical water extraction of organic matter containing sedimentary rocks at 300 °C and 1500 psi produces extracts comparable to conventional solvent extraction. Subcritical water extraction of previously solvent extracted samples confirms that high molecular weight organic matter (kerogen) degradation is not occurring and that only low molecular weight organic matter (free compounds) are being accessed in analogy to solvent extraction procedures. The sedimentary rocks chosen for extraction span the classic geochemical organic matter types. A type I organic matter-containing sedimentary rock produces n-alkanes and isoprenoidal hydrocarbons at 300 °C and 1500 psi that indicate an algal source for the organic matter. Extraction of a rock containing type II organic matter at the same temperature and pressure produces aliphatic hydrocarbons but also aromatic compounds reflecting the increased contributions from terrestrial organic matter in this sample. A type III organic matter-containing sample produces a range of non-polar and polar compounds including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and oxygenated aromatic compounds at 300 °C and 1500 psi reflecting a dominantly terrestrial origin for the organic materials. Although extraction at 300 °C and 1500 psi produces extracts that are comparable to solvent extraction, lower temperature steps display differences related to organic solubility. The type I organic matter produces no products below 300 °C and 1500 psi, reflecting its dominantly aliphatic character, while type II and type III organic matter contribute some polar components to the lower temperature steps, reflecting the chemical heterogeneity of their organic inventory. The separation of polar and non-polar organic compounds by using different temperatures provides the potential for selective extraction that may obviate the need for subsequent preparative chromatography steps. Our results indicate that subcritical water extraction can act as a suitable replacement for conventional solvent extraction of sedimentary rocks, but can also be used for any organic matter containing mineral matrix, including soils and recent sediments, and has the added benefit of tailored extraction for analytes of specific polarities.     

Reactive matrix clean-up of naturally occurring perylene in young lignite

Young lignite from two locations in Sendai City, Japan, were analyzed for polynuclear aromatic compounds (PACs). Lignite samples were extracted with toluene and PACs were isolated by a compound-class-selective, reactive matrix clean-up. This clean-up separates all compounds of polynuclear aromatic structure, for example hydrocarbons and ketones and their primary metabolites, from interfering organic compounds. The result of this isolation procedure is, therefore, a group of a large number of polycyclic compounds with different functional groups. Further analysis is done by glass capillary gas chromatography. Perylene was identified as the only compound obtained by the reactive matrix clean-up of lignite samples from both locations. Concentrations were in the range of 1–10 mg kg⁻¹. Conversely, PACs resulting from particulate emissions from fossil fuel combustion always contain isomeric PAHs (polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons) with some polycyclic aromatic ketones and thousands of primary and secondary metabolites at very low concentrations. This was demonstrated for a sample of urban air particulate matter, which is the source of PAC contamination of surface soil. The absence of accompanying PAHs and polynuclear aromatic ketones in the lignite samples confirms that perylene did not originate from a combustion process. It is assumed that the high concentrations of perylene are the result of a reduction of perylene quinone. Thus, the high perylene content of the lignite samples investigated is of biogenic origin.     

固相微萃取-气相色谱联用技术在环境分析中的应用

本文综述了近5年来固相微萃取-气相色谱(SPME-GC)联用技术在环境分析中的应用进展.具体介绍了它在多环芳烃、苯系物、酚类化合物、农药、杂环化合物以及其他有机挥发物分析中的应用.引用文献158篇.     

Surfactant cloud point extraction and preconcentration of organic compounds prior to chromatography and capillary electrophoresis

The use of preconcentration steps based on phase separation by the cloud point technique offers a convenient alternative to more conventional extraction systems. It has been used successfully for the preconcentration of species of widely differing character and nature, such as metal ions, proteins and other biomaterials, or organic compounds of strongly differing polarity. Here we address the most recent analytical applications of this methodology when used as an isolation and trace enrichment step prior to the analysis of organic compounds (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated compounds, pesticides, phenolic derivatives, aromatic amines, vitamins, etc.) via liquid and gas chromatography or capillary electrophoresis.     

Synthesis and characteristics of [60]fullerene polysiloxane stationary phase for capillary gas chromatography

A new type of fullerene-containing polysiloxane was synthesized by reacting [60]fullerene with azidopropyl polysiloxane directly. The polysiloxanes have been used successfully as stationary phases for capillary gas chromatography. They displayed high column efficiency, wide operational temperature and high thermostability, and exhibited unique selectivity for many organic substances, such as alkanes, alcohols, ketones and aromatic compounds. The stationary phase was especially suitable for separation of high boiling-point compounds like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and phthalic esters, etc. It was also found that some alcoholic or aromatic positional isomers could be well separated on the column. The influence of the fullerene content on the separation was also investigated.     

Isolation of organic water pollutants by xad resins and carbon

The recovery efficiencies of XAD resins −2, −4, −7, and −8 and of resin mixtures were measured using distilled water samples containing 13 organic pollutants. An equal-weight mixture of XAD-4 and XAD-8 was most efficient. XAD-2 and XAD-4/8 were further terted and found effective using tapwater. Carbon was tested as a sorbent for materials not well retained by the resins. In-column solvent washing before sample sorption was found to be as effective as Soxhlet extraction for removing background impurities. Some compounds can be desorbed from carbon by in-column solvent elution; others require Soxhlet extraction. An XAD-4/8 column in series with a carbon column was used to sample 1000 1 of tapwater. Halomethanes, n-hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic compounds and dibenzofuran in the order of ng/l were identified using a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer-computer system.     

A comparative study of solvent extraction of total petroleum hydrocarbons in soil

Three non-specific methods for the extraction of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) from soil into organic solvent were compared. The techniques used for sample preparation were Soxhlet extraction, closed-vessel microwave-assisted extraction, and CEN shake extraction. The total concentrations of extracted compounds in the boiling point range of C10–C40 were determined by gas chromatography with flame ionization detection. The best recovery (99%) and repeatability (±3%) from standard oil mixtures were obtained with microwave-assisted extraction. However, the different extraction methods exhibited different behaviour when spiked soil samples were extracted. The best repeatability was obtained with CEN shake extraction (±6%) but the repeatability values for Soxhlet and microwave-assisted methods were quite high (>20%). However, the larger uncertainties of the latter extraction methods does not necessarily limit the applicability of these methods to the determination of petroleum hydrocarbons in soil, as in the assessment of soil contamination the expanded uncertainty of the result is usually not limited by analytical uncertainty, but rather by the uncertainty of the primary sampling stage. However, distinctive variation found in the chromatographic profiles illustrates that discretion should be obeyed when chromatograms obtained after application of different extraction methods on petroleum contaminated samples are to be used in the fingerprinting or age dating studies. Otherwise, misleading conclusions concerning the age of spillage could be drawn.     

Elution Behavior of Low Molecular Weight Compounds in Gel Permeation Chromatography

Abstract

Elution behavior of organic compounds in gel permeation chromatography was investigated using chloroform as eluent. In aliphatic hydrocarbons, the elution counts decreased linearly with increasing the molecular volumes. In aromatic hydrocarbons, the relation between molecular volume and elution count slightly shifted toward lower counts. The elution counts in esters, ketones, amides, alcohols and carboxylic acids always fell in lower elution counts than expected by aliphatic hydrocarbons. This fact suggests that all these compounds are solvated by eluent molecules. Amines and chlorides exhibit an adsorption effect on cross-linked polystyrene gel. These compounds are eluted behind the corresponding hydrocarbons for given molecular volumes, which were obtained by dividing molecular weight by density.     

Identification and quantitative analysis of nitrogen-containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments

An integrated analytical methodology has been developed for determining nitrogen-containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which enables quantitation of individual contaminants as low as 1 μg/kg in sediment samples. A cross-sectional profile from the Hamilton Harbour sediment samples was analyzed for azaarenes. These contaminants were separated by Soxhlet extraction, and pH adjustment allowed their isolation from different classes of neutral and acidic components. Separation and identification of the organic bases in each sample were achieved by using open tubular column gas chromatography with thermionic detection and HRGC-mass spectrometry. Organic bases present in the samples included mostly azaarenes such as acridines, benzacridines, azafluorene, benzoquinolines, azapyrenes, etc. Quantitation and environmental significance of these compounds are discussed. Recoveries of individual azaarenes at two different levels were evaluated. Data presented indicate that detection limits of this method are between 1 and 10 μg/kg. Recovery azaarenes from bottom sediment samples at concentration levels between 1 to 100 μg/kg is 81 ± 17%.