Small attachable interferometric strain gages

Laser-based interferometry from two tiny reflective indentations can be used to measure in-plane strain/displacement over a very short gage length (on the order of 100 μm). If the specimen material is not reflective, then some other means of generating the interference patterns must be found. This paper describes two kinds of attachable gages: plated acetate replicas of indentations and reflective foils that are indented after application. In either case, the gage is applied with the techniques used for foil-resistance gages and the gage itself is very small. The manufacturing procedures are described. The results of experiments comparing the strain to that measured with foil-resistance gages are presented. Finally, the small interferometric gage is used to measure strain on one of the metal strips in a foil-resistance gage.     

Dynamic plastic response of foil gages

Little research has been devoted to the accuracy of the response of resistance strain gages to dynamic plastic strain because of the lack of an easy-to-use comparative strain-measuring technique. The dynamic interferometric strain gage provides a suitable standard of comparison. Foil-gage response is compared directly with interferometric strain-gage response in a longitudinal-impact experiment. The accuracy of the foil gage does not decrease with increasing maximum strain (up to 8 percent). The error in shape of the strain wave does not vary drastically with distance from the point of impact. In contrast to previous work, foil gages are found to be reasonably accurate strain transducers for dynamic plastic strain.     

Effects of pressure on small foil strain gages

This paper describes the behavior of small foil strain gages under high pressure. Effects of pressure were determined and calibration curves were established in prelininary experiments. The calibrations were then used for correcting measured strains in pressure vessels. Preliminary experiments at room temperature were conducted on small foil strain gages for pressures up to 35,000 psi. The effects of pressure on the gages bonded with a cynoacrylate contact cement, a room-temperature epoxy cement, a high-temperature epoxy cement and a filled epoxy resin were evaluated. Because the contact cement was least affected by pressure and was easiest to apply, it was chosen for use in successive experiments with different gage installations. Calibration curves were determined for strain gages of 0.031-, 0.062- and 0.125-in. gage lengths. The compensating gages were under atmospheric pressure. The calibrations included the pressure effects of gages bonded on both concave and convex surfaces, and the effect of tensile prestrains. Data could be duplicated for successive pressure tests and for several gage installations. The calibration curves proved to be an effective way for obtaining accurate readings from the foil strain gages bonded internally to a pressure vessel.     

Errors in high-temperature strain measurements

The results of a technical evaluation of the accuracy of two types of commercially available high-temperature electric-resistance strain gages, and a special high-temperature gage under development at the Liquid Metal Engineering Center (LMEC) are presented. These gages, the BLH type HT 1212-5A, Microdot type SG420, and the LMEC gage, were selected for evaluation because of the need for reliable electric-resistance strain gages for high-temperature stress or strain measurements and process instrumentation in the temperature range of 900 to 1200° F. The BLH gage is rated by the manufacturer as a 1000 to 1200° F gage; the Microdot gage is rated as a 900° F gage. The special LMEC gage was made for use up to 1200° F. Instrumentation of this type is needed to determine or ensure component structural integrity and over-all system reliability of fast breeder reactors.     

The gross hydrostatic-pressure effect as related to foil and wire strain gages

An analysis of gross pressure effect for strain gages is presented. This is defined as the difference between the predicted hydrostatic strain and the experimental strain. Values of the theoretical strain per unit pressure are based on the Voigt-Reuss-Hill approximation using published values of elastic moduli and compliances. These theoretical values are adjusted by the pressure effect calculated from an equation based on the assumption that the pressure effect is independent of the elastic properties of the substrate. The modified values of theoretical strain per unit pressure are then compared with the experimentally observed values. The differences are small except for the substrate materials of zinc, cadmium and lead. Experimental pressure-strain data are presented for constantan foil gages mounted on tungsten, copper, tin, molybdenum, titanium, cadmium, brass, zinc and lead as well as constantan wire gages mounted on steel, aluminum and magnesium for hydrostatic pressures up to 140 ksi. Data for foil and wire gages mounted with various adhesives are presented and show that the adhesive or backing materials appear to have a relatively minor effect on the over-all gage performance.     

Resistance-foil strain-gage technology as applied to composite materials

A general review of existing strain-gage technologies as applied to orthotropic-composite materials is given. The specific topics addressed are gage-bonding procedures, transverse-sensitivity effects, errors due to gage misalignment, and temperature-compensation methods. The discussion is supplemented by numerical examples where appropriate. It is shown that the orthotropic behavior of composites can result in experimental error which would not be expected based on practical experience with isotropic materials. In certain cases, the transverse sensitivity of strain gages and/or slight gage misalignment can result in strain-measurement errors exceeding 50 percent.     

Monitoring short fatigue cracks with miniature strain gages

An experimental technique to monitor the length and the opening level of a short fatigue crack is presented. It is based on the progressive decrease with crack length of the response of miniature strain gages installed on the surface near the crack plane. A first gage installed close to the crack plane can monitor cracks from 10 μm in depth to half a millimeter where the response saturates. Other gages at larger distances from the crack plane are less sensitive but can monitor longer cracks. The response is measured so that it is independent of strain-gage calibration, Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio. The paper first presents the basic principles and possibilities of the technique as well as a finite-element analysis performed on automatic welded joints with straight-fronted cracks for which the technique has been developed. The results give a correlation between gage response, crack length and gage location and the conditions of replacement of a gage reaching saturation. The practical exploitation of the technique has required further work to derive a continuous calibration of the gage response that includes corrections to account for the gage finite dimensions and the crack-plane inclination. This calibration is shown to give crack lengths that compare well with fractographic marks and typical results that have been obtained on short crack growth at the weld toe are presented. In particular, the resolution of the technique is put into evidence with results on the initial growth of a 0.1 mm nonpropagating crack. The paper finally points out the distinctive features that appear in current works to adapt the technique to the growth of semi-elliptical cracks of low and high aspect ratio.     

Attainable accuracy of strain measurements with thum-sevenson-weiss mechanical-inductive strain gages

This paper determines the accuracy that can be attained with the Thum-Svenson-Weiss mechanical-inductive strain-measuring method. After stating advantages and disadvantages of this measuring method, the strain gage, the electrical parts and the calibration equipment are described. The determination of accuracy is based on the laws of statistics considering all the errors as distributed completely at random. The behavior of the electrical parts, of the mechanical parts, of the strain gage and of the calibration equipment are separately investigated. It is evident from these investigations that the strain measurement with the Thum-Svenson-Weiss mechanical-inductive strain gages is one of the most accurate strain-measuring methods to date.     

Doubly Reinforcing Cementitious Beams with Instrumented Hollow Carbon Fiber Tendons

Surface mounted strain gages are used to characterize the behavior of polymer-enhanced cementitious beams designed to withstand reverse loadings. These unique composite structures are doubly reinforced with hollow carbon fiber (graphite) tendons equipped with strain gages and the study includes section design, materials considerations, structural testing, and finite element analysis. The primary purpose of strain gage integration is to insure that the stress in the materials remains within the elastic range so that damage does not occur. A finite element model is developed to characterize the structural response in the elastic range and a hybrid approach is suggested in which displacement, strain, and stress can be obtained with a single strain gage. The ability to characterize structural performance beyond the elastic range is also demonstrated by analyzing data obtained from displacement-controlled tests.     

Application of carbon-powder-polymer composite as a continuous crack-length sensor

This paper explores the application of carbon-powder-impregnated polymeric composites for measuring crack extensions. The strain sensitivity of the gage material is shown to be very small. In the first series of tests, the gage material is characterized by measuring the change in electrical resistance due to machined slits for various gage lengths. The measured response is compared with the response predicted from a very simple electrical model. On the basis of good correlation and repeatability, the usefulness of such gages to measure crack extensions is assessed by a second series of tests. Further work to improve the gage response by optimizing the shape of the gage and making the gage and the adhesive layer thinner is proposed. The presented concept, with improvements, can result in a reliable, inexpensive crack gage requiring inexpensive instrumentation. Paper was presented at the 1990 SEM Spring Conference on Experimental Mechanics held in Albuquerque, NM on June 3–6.     

On the use of electrical-resistance metallic foil strain gages for measuring large dynamic plastic deformation

The use of electrical-resistance metallic foil strain gages for measuring large plastic strain in dynamic experiments in studied. The maximum nominal strains obtained in this investigation are 35 percent in compression, 25 percent in tension. A linear variation of gage factor with strain is found in this range. The corrected maximum strains are in excellent agreement with permanent strains measured after the tests. Thus foil strain gages can be effectively used to measure the large dynamic plastic strains.     

Hybrid stress analysis of perforated composites using strain gages

A strain gage hybrid method is described for determining individual stresses on the boundary and in the neighborhood of cutouts in orthotropic composites. Results agree with independent measurements and finite element analysis. Few measured strain data are needed, and the measured strains originate away from the hole. Ability to determine the stresses on the edge of a cutout from nonboundary measurements recognizes the difficulties in obtaining reliable measurements very near an edge while circumventing the challenge of attempting to bond gages to the transverse curved surface of a small hole or notch. The method also alleviates the problem of not knowing a priori where the most serious stress will occur on the geometric boundary and, hence, where to locate strain gages.     

Performance of miniature resistance strain gages in low-cycle fatigue

Experimental results describing the behavior of five types of miniature resistance strain gages subjected to cyclic strains of high amplitude are presented. Test procedure and instrumentation are described. Changes in zero drift and changes in gage sensitivity are discussed with respect to various strain gage and test variables. Mechanisms of gage failure, effect of variation of imposed strain and hysteresis in gage response are discussed.     

Use of strain gages for uquipment-reliability improvement in the electric-utility industry

This applications paper describes the utilization of strain gages by the Detroit Edison Company in defining and solving major power-plant-equipment problems that had an adverse effect on the availability of the Company's large coal-fired generating units. Case histories of the use of strain gages for troublesome problems involving boiler tubes, air preheaters, stack liners and fans are presented. The role of the strain gage in helping to define the source of the problem and devleop a timely and cost-effective solution is highlighted.     

Strain-gage stability measurements for three years at 150°C in air

The zero shifts of nickel-chromium foil strain gages (modified Karma) were measured over a period of three years at a constant temperature of 150°C in air. Three gage lengths were included—1.585 mm (1/16 in.), 3.170 mm (1/8 in.), and 6.340 mm (1/4 in.). The strain gages were bonded to constant-stress cantilever beams which were subjected to nomial mechanical strain levels of 0, ±780 μm/m, and ± 1350 μm/m. Each strian gage was connected by threewire leads to a Wheatstone-bridge circuit for the test duration. The data support two general observations: (1) short gage lengths suffer larger zero shifts than longer gage lengths, and (2) gages in compression suffer large zero shifts than gages in tension. On the assumption that the major cause of the zero shifts is a combination of corrosion of the foil and creep of the gage/epoxy/beam system, the author suggests a possible way to correct for the zero shift by experimentally determining the combined corrosion/creep effect and substracting it from the strain-gage readings. Some of the data appear to be consistent with this assumption, but some of the data do not.     

A piezoelectric field-effect strain gage

A new and highly sensitive strain transducer has been developed using a thin-film semiconductor deposited on a polished piezoelectric ceramic substrate. Field-effect coupling has been found to exist between the substrate and film in which the number of mobile carriers in the semiconductor is dependent on the electric-displacement vector of the substrate. Therefore, the conductivity of the semiconducting film can be altered by piezoelectric charge due to a strain applied to the substrate material. An effective gage constant has been calculated in terms of the piezoelectric and elastic constants of the substrate and electronic properties of the film. Experimental devices were constructed by depositingp type tellurium on polished lead-zirconate-titanate ceramic resulting in experimentally observed gage factors as high as 5800 compared to 100–200 for conventional semiconductor gages. The semiconductor film exhibits an electronic instability that limits its use, at present, to transient measurements with frequencies above 1 Hz. Data will also be presented to show that the gage constant is continuously variable between a positive and negative maximum value by altering the magnitude and direction of the substrate-polarization vector. It is believed that these gages will be useful in those cases where extremely small strains (～10^?7) are to be measured or when moderate strains (～10^?4) are to be determined in an electrically noisy background.     

Reversible strain gage

A reversible strain gage was developed for accurately measuring thermal strains, especially for use on large structures where strain gages cannot be welded. These strain gages can be peeled after taking required apparentstrain measurements in a furnace and can be attached reverse-side-up at the points of interest on a test structure. After many trials, a polyimide strain gage was developed that is the same on both the base side and the cover side. The thermal characteristics of the reversible strain gage—repeatability of apparent strain, gage-factor change, creep, drift and the output for a given mechanical strain—were investigated. The repeatability of apparent strains for 100 reversible gages was within 60 microstrain of difference at 250°C. The output of reversible gages for mechanical strain, after 2 to 3 heat cycles which were peeled and cemented in the reverse-side-up position, almost coincided with those of virgin reversible gages.Paper was presented at Fourth SESA International Congress on Experimental Mechanics held in Boston, MA on May 25–30, 1980     

An investigation of the use of strain gages to measure welding-induced residual stresses

The measurement of weld-induced residual stress is important in structures that are subjected to cyclic loading during their service life. Depending on their magnitude, stresses can influence the rate of crack growth under cyclic loading and hence affect the life of the structure. Because the level of residual stress may change during service, measurement of these changes is necessary for accurate life prediction of the structures. The measurement of welding-induced residual stress using strain gages poses significant problems, the most important being the potential damage to the gages by high temperatures generated in the welding process. This laboratory study was undertaken to assess the suitability and signal stability of commercially available resistive strain gages for the measurement of postweld residual stresses in a submarine hull structure. Adhesively bonded and weldable-type strain gages were attached to the surface of a 35 mm thick steel plate, which was then subjected to thermal cycles similar to those encountered during welding construction of a submarine pressure hull. This paper describes the strain gage application procedure, changes in the strain gage output at end of each experimental stage and the history of changes in the residual stress.     

Temperature and rise-time effects on dynamic strain measurement

Strain pulses in a test specimen were measured over a temperature range of ?73 to +149°C with foil and semiconductor strain gages. These tests were performed to determine if the rise time and amplitude of the gage output change as a function of temperature. The existence of a constant that should be added to the theoretical rise times of resistance strain gages, as suggested by Koshiro Oi, was reexamined. ‘Long’ rise-time strain pulses were produced in the test specimen by an impacting steel ball. The rise times of these pulses were on the order of 7 μs and the amplitudes were approximately 65 μm/m. The results of these tests show that the rise time and amplitude of the gage do not change as a function of temperature. ‘Short’ rise-time strain pulses of approximately 500 μm/m with a rise time of 2 μs were produced in a test specimen by a short pendulum-type hammer apparatus. The results of these tests showed that the amplitude of the gage output was relatively independent of test temperatures but exhibited a slight hysteresis effect. The rise times for these tests remained constant up to a temperature of 93°C, then started to increase. The rise times at 149°C were approximately 100 percent longer than at room temperature. Under optimum conditions, a pulse with a measured rise time of 0.18 μs could be generated. The results of these tests indicated that the theoretical rise-time additive constant of resistance strain gages is 0.05 μs or less. This is one-half the value that Bickle arrived at by reevaluating Oi's data. However, since the real rise time of the pulse was unknown, this additive constant is not necessarily a property of the gage.