Characteristics of lightning flashes striking the CN Tower below its tip

It has been observed that tall structures are sometimes struck by lightning below their tops. This phenomenon necessitates the use of special procedures for the protection of tall structures from lightning hazards. This paper focuses on the analysis of lightning flashes that struck the CN Tower below its tip over an extended period of time (1991–2005). Through the use of video images recorded during the reporting period, it was found that out of 404 flashes to the tower, only 16 hit the tower below its tip (3.96%). The distance between the tower's tip and the strike location varied from 5.4 to 70 m. Statistical analysis of flash characteristics of strikes below the tower's tip generally shows that the flash duration and the number of strokes per flash are considerably lower than those for the majority of cases, when the tower is struck at its tip. Furthermore, a trend of decrease in flash duration is found as the distance between the tower's tip and the strike location increases. Therefore, based on the analysis of the available data, lightning strikes below the top of a tall structure do not seem to pose greater danger than strikes to the structure's top, assuming that the structure is also protected along its sides. It is hoped that the presented observations and statistical analyses will be of value in the development of sophisticated measures against lightning hazards at elevated objects.     

Technique for predicting the number of lightning strokes to extended objects

A technique is developed for predicting the lightning stroke distribution over a territory that is occupied by extended objects protected by lightning arresters (for example, high-voltage substations). It is shown that the techniques used to predict the number of lightning strokes to small objects located in a rated zone protected by lightning arresters are inapplicable to extended objects. The probability distribution is calculated for the number of lightning strokes to lightning arresters and to arrester-protected extended objects at different arrangements of the arresters.     

人工触发闪电通道的导电特性

用光学多道分析仪(OMA)获得了山东地区人工触发闪电回击过程的发射光谱.与以往的自然闪电光谱相比,除了氮、氧的中性原子及一次电离的离子谱和Hα谱线外,这次人工触发闪电的光谱还记录到了微量元素ArⅠ 602.5 nm及ArⅡ 666.5 nm的谱线.在局部热力学平衡近似下,根据光谱线的相对强度等参量,计算了闪电通道等离子体的温度;利用Hα线的Stark加宽、通过半经验方法获得了闪电通道的电子密度;首次结合等离子体理论得到了闪电通道的电导率,并由此讨论了通道的导电特性,分析了通道电导率与回击电流之间的相关性,为进一步计算回击电流提供了参考数据.结果分析得出:闪电通道是良导体,电子是通道电流的主要载体;一般情况下,人工触发闪电的通道亮度比自然闪电通道大,而通道回击电流小于自然闪电.     

负地闪CPT放电事件的发生规律研究

本文分析了2012年广州地区6次雷暴过程的负地闪中不规则脉冲簇(chaotic pulse trains,CPT)放电事件的发生规律.结果表明:CPT是负地闪整个放电过程中普遍存在的放电现象,在323次负地闪中有243次出现了CPT放电事件,比例达到了75.2%,并且能够发生在负地闪的首次回击之前、回击之间以及最后一次回击之后,其中有66.7%的继后回击之前和11.5%的最后一次回击之后发生了CPT.研究也发现,CPT在继后回击之前有四种分布类型:单独出现一次CPT-c(与继后回击相连的CPT)、单独出现一次CPT-i(与继后回击有一定时间间隔的CPT)、同时出现CPT-c和CPT-i以及同时出现多次CPT-i,其中,单独出现一次CPT-c类型最为多见,39.4%的继后回击之前为此类型,而在第一次和第二次继后回击之前更容易出现多次CPT的现象,分别占到对应次序回击总数的9.4%和7.7%.而随着继后回击次序的增加,其之前发生CPT的概率呈减小的趋势,并且除了第一次和第二次继后回击以外,其他继后回击之前CPT-c的出现频次大于CPT-i.另外,CPT-i和最后一次回击之后的CPT均叠加在K变化上,部分回击间的CPT也能够发生在J过程中.     

Estimation of charge neutralized by negative cloud-to-ground flashes in Catalonia thunderstorms

Charges neutralized by lightning flashes have been usually located and inferred from the quasi-static changes in the vertical component of electric field (ΔE) obtained from multiple synchronized measurement stations. In this paper, the charges neutralized by negative cloud-to-ground (?CG) lightning flashes are located and inferred using single station electric field measurements in combination with total lightning (cloud-to-ground and intra-cloud) data from lightning detection networks in the north-eastern region of Spain. The altitude of the negative charge region in 8 thunderstorms examined here was in the range of 5.8–7.2 km as inferred from temperature soundings. Charge locations are assumed to be in the region where the VHF (Very High Frequency) sources associated with the discharge are located. The quantity of charge neutralized is calculated using a point charge model and the measured vertical component of electric field (ΔE) associated with each flash. The results are compared with those previously obtained from measurements carried out in the NASA Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida. The analysis of 260 ?CG flashes from eight thunderstorms reveals a median charge value of ?9.7 C with 95% of the values ranging between ?4.5 C and ?45 C.     

3D simulation of the lightning path using a mixed physical-probabilistic model – The open source lightning model

The modeling of the lightning channel's propagation has been a major issue in lightning protection. Several solutions are already existing based on different assumptions revealing different properties of the lightning, including return strokes, the orientation point (and distance), and several other factors. The path of the lightning channel however is very hard to model using the physical equations and laws only, since a lot of the boundary conditions and starting conditions are unknown. Thus for these purposes the probabilistic approach is practically used. In this paper a lightning path simulation method is shown based on a probabilistic approach. The lightning path is mainly influenced by the electric field, and the existence of the start electrons. These conditions can't always be calculated, thus in many cases a probabilistic model shall be used. The model proposed in this article has a modular approach, it consists of several components. Each of these components can be improved based on existing theories, and empirical data, and this makes this simulation method – besides the realization – “open source”, as the components can be improved individually. At this stage of the development, many lightning parameters are yet omitted, but the model structure of course allows further improvement on this field as well.     

广东沿海地区闪电通道的温度特性研究

在广东沿海地区,用无狭缝光栅摄谱仪获得了云对地闪电回击过程的光谱。经过光谱特征分析和谱线辨认,依据测得的谱线相对强度以及多组态Dirac-Fock方法得到的谱线跃迁参数,采用多谱线法,对每个闪电回击通道不同高度处的温度进行了定量计算。结果表明,强闪电放电过程对应的通道温度较高;分析通道不同高度处的温度值,发现对大多数闪电,同一回击通道随高度的增加温度略呈减小趋势;与青海高原相比,广东沿海地区强闪电较多, 光谱上激发能高的一次电离氧离子的跃迁谱线明显增多。     

闪电通道温度诊断中观测距离的影响

利用无狭缝光栅摄谱仪获得了青海高原地区云对地闪电首次回击过程的光谱,运用比尔-朗伯定律,考虑传播过程中谱线强度的衰减,计算讨论了观测距离对通道温度诊断结果的影响.结果表明,不同观测距离下得到的光谱诊断放电通道温度,其结果有一定差异;远距离观测得到的温度小于近距离观测的结果;观测距离越远,所得温度的误差越大.因此,在远距离观测的情况下,修正更为重要.由计算结果,得到了温度修正的半经验公式,由此,可以扣除观测距离对闪电通道温度诊断结果的影响.     

Estimation of lightning vulnerability points on wind power plants using the rolling sphere method

The escalating number of wind power plants in many countries makes their reliability and safety of crucial importance. One of the main causes of damages for wind power plants is constituted by lightning. Hence, appropriate tools for the lightning protection of wind power plants are required. We have developed a new computer program in Visual Basic, LPS 2008, which runs over AutoCAD and is able to perform risk assessment on a structure or on a service due to lightning flashes to ground. Computer simulations obtained by using LPS 2008 are presented, and conclusions are duly drawn.     

人工触发闪电电流波形特征参数分析

通过分析在夏季强雷暴活动频繁的山东滨州地区连续4年人工触发闪电实验中所获得的闪电回击通道底部电流资料,结果表明人工触发闪电回击峰值电流几何平均值为14.6kA,电流波形10％—90%上升时间和30％—90%上升时间的几何平均值分别为2.3μs和1.8μs,相应上升陡度分别为4.7kA/μs和4.4kA/μs.波形半峰值宽度的几何平均值为17μs,回击1ms内转移电荷量的几何平均值为1.2C,回击电流作用积分的几何平均值为6.1×10³A²s.对比研究表明回击峰值电流与接地状况、回击电流波形的上升时间以及半峰值宽度之间没有明显相关性,但与电流波形上升陡度以及回击1ms之内转移电荷量之间存在相关性,回击峰值电流（I_p）与回击1ms内转移电荷量（Q）之间满足关系式：I_p=14.1Q^0.69.通过与自然闪电放电参数的对比分析表明,人工触发闪电回击过程与自然地闪放电的继后回击过程相似. 关键词： 人工触发闪电 地闪 闪电电流 回击     

闪电首次回击过程中通道温度与电导率的演化特征

利用以高速摄像机为记录系统组装的无狭缝摄谱仪,在青海地区获得了多次云对地闪电首次回击过程400-900 nm波长范围的时间分辨光谱,分别计算了闪电电流核心通道和外围发光通道的温度;结合空气等离子体的传输理论,获得了闪电通道的电导率,探讨了回击过程中通道温度及电导率的演化特征.结果表明,闪电电流核心通道的温度比外围通道高约5000-7000 K,并且,与以往关于通道峰值温度持续时间的观点不同,回击过程中,通道保持高温的时间远远大于峰值放电电流存在的时间,在回击电流缓慢减小的数百微秒内,核心电流通道维持20000 K以上高温,这一特性是热效应导致雷电灾害的主要根源.     

‘The mesh method’ in lightning protection standards – Revisited

At present the design of the Lightning protection systems (LPS) for structures as stipulated in standards is based on the electro – geometrical method, which was initially used to protect power lines from lightning. A derivative of the electro-geometrical method is the rolling sphere method. This method together, with the protection angle method and mesh method are used almost in all lightning standards as the measure in installing the lightning protection systems of grounded structures. In the mesh method, the dimension of the cell size in different levels of protection is determined using the rolling sphere method. Since the rolling sphere method does not take into account the physics of the lightning attachment process there is a need to evaluate the validity of the stipulated value in standards of the minimum lightning current that can penetrate through the mesh in different levels of protection. In this paper, meshes of different sizes as stipulated in the lightning protection standards were tested for their ability to intercept lightning flashes using a lightning attachment model that takes into account the physics of connecting leaders on. The results are in reasonable agreement with the specifications given in the lightning protection standards.     

闪电首次回击过程中通道温度与电导率的演化特征

利用以高速摄像机为记录系统组装的无狭缝摄谱仪,在青海地区获得了多次云对地闪电首次回击过程400-900 nm波长范围的时间分辨光谱,分别计算了闪电电流核心通道和外围发光通道的温度;结合空气等离子体的传输理论,获得了闪电通道的电导率,探讨了回击过程中通道温度及电导率的演化特征.结果表明,闪电电流核心通道的温度比外围通道高约5000-7000K,并且,与以往关于通道峰值温度持续时间的观点不同,回击过程中,通道保持高温的时间远远大于峰值放电电流存在的时间,在回击电流缓慢减小的数百微秒内,核心电流通道维持20000K以上高温,这一特性是热效应导致雷电灾害的主要根源.     

人工引发雷电先导-回击过程的电场变化特征

 2005年夏季在山东滨州进行了以人工引发雷电为主的综合观测实验，在负电场环境下，成功引发雷电5次，其中传统引发方式3次，空中引发方式2次。详细分析了双向先导-小回击过程和箭式先导-回击过程的垂直电场变化特征。结果表明：2次空中引发雷电的双向先导发展过程在地面60 m处产生的电场变化为4.70~14.60 kV/m，呈负向变化；在550 m处为0.11~0.16 kV/m，呈正向变化。利用60 m处的先导电场变化，估算双向先导电荷线密度分布的斜率为(1.2~3.8)×10^-7 C·m^-2。箭式先导-回击电场变化波形呈不对称V形，V形的底部对应先导的结束和回击的开始。60和550 m处的箭式先导电场几何平均值分别为17.80和1.20 kV·m^-1。随水平距离的增加，箭式先导电场以水平距离的-1.18次方衰减。     

闪电放电通道的辐射演化特性

用无狭缝红外光谱仪获得了山东地区云对地闪电回击过程的近红外光谱,并与可见光波长范围的闪电回击光谱进行了对比分析.根据近红外光谱的结构特征,讨论了闪电通道等离子体的光谱辐射顺序以及不同波段连续光谱的主要辐射机制,研究得出：可见光谱主要是闪电回击初期和发展阶段的辐射|近红外光谱主要是闪电发展后期的辐射|可见波段的连续光谱主要来自韧致辐射的贡献,而红外部分的连续光谱主要来自复合辐射的贡献.由分析结果推断：闪电通道等离子体的复合过程是闪电产生O3、NOX的主要途径,复合过程中的氧吸附作用和去吸附过程是近红外光谱中氧原子谱线增多的重要原因,也是OI 777.4 nm相对强度比较大的主要原因.     

Some microphysical and electrical aspects of a Cloud Resolving Model: description and thunderstorm case study

An electrification scheme, consistent with the mixed-phase microphysical parameterization, has been developed for the French cloud resolving model MésoNH. There are four successive steps: (i) charge separation is assumed to result only from non-inductive processes; (ii) electrical charges carried by the different hydrometeor species are transported along the air flow and redistributed according to the microphysical processes; (iii) the electric field is deduced from the integration of a modified Poisson equation; (iv) a lightning parameterization simulates triggering, propagation and pseudo-fractal branching of the flashes and associated charge neutralization. Two numerical experiments are conducted firstly to evaluate the performances of the lightning scheme, secondly to test the simulated evolution of the electrical characteristics of a idealized supercellular storm. To cite this article: G. Molinié et al., C. R. Physique 3 (2002) 1305–1324.     

基于先导发展模型的舰艇避雷防护评估仿真

基于先导发展模型实现了海域上地闪先导2维数值放电模拟,完成了海域上地闪先导放电通道过程的图样采集。通过建立二维舰船模型,并根据相关标准对舰船模型进行避雷针的数量、高度、位置设定,对此模型进行雷电先导放电数值试验。经大量试验统计分析,舰船采用单根避雷针设计方案时,避雷针的高度较高,使得接闪概率明显增大,但在避雷针周围取得了较理想的防护效果;与单根设计方案相比,双根避雷针设计使得舰船整体结构高度降低,总的接闪次数有所减少,防护效果更佳。该评估方法可与长间隙放电试验和雷电观测互为补充,进一步完善了水面舰艇避雷系统防护评估检验技术,为舰艇的雷电防护提供理论基础。     

Physical processes during development of lightning flashes

The objective of this paper is to review our present understanding of the physical processes in lightning flashes during their development within or outside a cloud, following lightning initiation. This represents the ‘big picture’ of lightning development, in the scale of the cloud dimensions themselves. Since the acceptance of the bi-directional, zero-net-charge leader concept, significant changes have occurred in our understanding of the key physical processes of which a lightning flash is comprised, and in the analytical relationship between the electrical structure of a cloud and lightning parameters. These changes are discussed with an emphasis on the unifying nature of the bi-directional leader concept. To cite this article: V. Mazur, C. R. Physique 3 (2002) 1393–1409.     

Evaluation of parameters influencing the lightning performance of communication towers by numerical modeling and experimental tests

This paper analyzes the effective parameters on lightning performance. The effects of tower height, breakdown electric field threshold, the ground slope of installation place, and the effect of the trees around the tower are investigated. A 3-D numerical analysis model is proposed to determine the number of direct lightning strokes to antennas. The communication tower, lightning rod, downward descending leader and upward leaders are modeled by different shapes of charges. Finally, a small-scale communication tower was built and tested in a high voltage laboratory. The experimental tests were consistent with the simulation results verifying the merits of the proposed method.