Synthesis and characterization of sulfonated block copolymers by atom transfer radical polymerization

Well‐defined sulfonated polystyrene and block copolymers with n‐butyl acrylate (nBA) were synthesized by CuBr catalyzed living radical polymerization. Neopentyl p‐styrene sulfonate (NSS) was polymerized with ethyl‐2‐bromopropionate initiator and CuBr catalyst with N,N,N′,N′‐pentamethylethyleneamine to give poly(NSS) (PNSS) with a narrow molecular weight distribution (MWD < 1.12). PNSS was then acidified by thermolysis resulting in a polystyrene backbone with 100% sulfonic acid groups. Random copolymers of NSS and styrene with various composition ratios were also synthesized by copolymerization of NSS and styrene with different feed ratios (MWD < 1.11). Well defined block copolymers with nBA were synthesized by sequential polymerization of NSS from a poly(n‐butyl acrylate) (PnBA) precursor using CuBr catalyzed living radical polymerization (MWD < 1.29). © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 46: 5991–5998, 2008     

Synthesis of block copolymers by combined ultrasonic irradiation and reverse atom transfer radical polymerization processes

A two-step procedure based on ultrasonic irradiation and reverse atom transfer radical polymerization (RATRP) for the synthesis of block copolymers is described. In the first step of the procedure, a stable chlorine-end-capped polymer is formed upon the ultrasonic irradiation of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) in dry benzene in the presence of a copper chloride/2,2′-bipyridine catalyst. Heating the system to 110 °C initiates the polymerization of the second monomer, styrene, and this results in the formation of the block copolymers. The degradation behavior of PMMA under ultrasonic irradiation has also been studied. The agreement of the experimentally obtained molecular weights and theoretical molecular weights and the unimodal shapes of the gel permeation chromatography curves of the block copolymers indicate the controlled nature of the RATRP process initiated by polymeric radicals formed by sonication. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42: 534–540, 2004     

Sequential synthesis of multiblock copolymers by atom transfer radical and cationic polymerization

ABCBA‐type pentablock copolymers of methyl methacrylate (MMA), styrene (S), and isobutylene (IB) were prepared by a three‐step synthesis, which included atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and cationic polymerization: (1) poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) with terminal chlorine atoms was prepared by ATRP initiated with an aromatic difunctional initiator bearing two trichloromethyl groups under CuCl/2,2′‐bipyridine catalysis; (2) PMMA with the same catalyst was used for ATRP of styrene, which produced a poly(S‐b‐MMA‐b‐S) triblock copolymer; and (3) IB was polymerized cationically in the presence of the aforementioned triblock copolymer and BCl₃, and this produced a poly(IB‐b‐S‐b‐MMA‐b‐S‐b‐IB) pentablock copolymer. The reaction temperature, varied from ?78 to ?25 °C, significantly affected the IB content in the product; the highest was obtained at ?25 °C. The formation of a pentablock copolymer with a narrow molecular weight distribution provided direct evidence of the presence of active chlorine at the ends of the poly(S‐b‐MMA‐b‐S) triblock copolymer, capable of the initiation of the cationic polymerization of IB in the presence of BCl₃. A differential scanning calorimetry trace of the pentablock copolymer (20.1 mol % IB) showed the glass‐transition temperatures of three segregated domains, that is, polyisobutylene (?87.4 °C), polystyrene (95.6 °C), and PMMA (103.7 °C) blocks. One glass‐transition temperature (104.5 °C) was observed for the aforementioned triblock copolymer. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42: 6098–6108, 2004     

Synthesis of semifluorinated block copolymers by atom transfer radical polymerization

Two sets of styrene‐based semifluorinated block copolymers, one with a perfluoroether pendant group and another with a perfluoroalkyl group, were synthesized by atom transfer radical polymerization. Microphase separation of the block copolymers was established by small‐angle X‐ray scattering and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). DSC measurements also showed that the perfluoroether‐based polymer had a low glass‐transition temperature (?44 °C). Contact‐angle measurements indicated that the semifluorinated block copolymers had low surface energies (ca. 13 mJ/m²). These materials hold promise as low‐surface‐energy additives or surfactants for supercritical CO₂ applications. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42: 853–861, 2004     

Synthesis of methyl methacrylate,styrene, and isobutylene multiblock copolymers using atom transfer and cationic polymerization

ABCBA‐type pentablock copolymers of methyl methacrylate, styrene, and isobutylene (IB) were prepared by the cationic polymerization of IB in the presence of the α,ω‐dichloro‐PS‐b‐PMMA‐b‐PS triblock copolymer [where PS is polystyrene and PMMA is poly(methyl methacrylate)] as a macroinitiator in conjunction with diethylaluminum chloride (Et₂AlCl) as a coinitiator. The macroinitiator was prepared by a two‐step copper‐based atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). The reaction temperature, ?78 or ?25 °C, significantly affected the IB content in the resulting copolymers; a higher content was obtained at ?78 °C. The formation of the PIB‐b‐PS‐b‐PMMA‐b‐PS‐b‐PIB copolymers (where PIB is polyisobutylene), prepared at ?25 (20.3 mol % IB) or ?78 °C (61.3 mol % IB; rubbery material), with relatively narrow molecular weight distributions provided direct evidence of the presence of labile chlorine atoms at both ends of the macroinitiator capable of initiation of cationic polymerization of IB. One glass‐transition temperature (T_g), 104.5 °C, was observed for the aforementioned triblock copolymer, and the pentablock copolymer containing 61.3 mol % IB showed two well‐defined T_g's: ?73.0 °C for PIB and 95.6 °C for the PS–PMMA blocks. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 43: 3823–3830, 2005     

Synthesis of diblock copolymers by combining stable free radical polymerization and atom transfer radical polymerization

A stable nitroxyl radical functionalized with an initiating group for atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), 4‐(2‐bromo‐2‐methylpropionyloxy)‐2,2,6,6‐tetramethyl‐1‐piperidinyloxy (Br‐TEMPO), was synthesized by the reaction of 4‐hydroxyl‐2,2,6,6‐tetramethyl‐1‐piperidinyloxy with 2‐bromo‐2‐methylpropionyl bromide. Stable free radical polymerization of styrene was then carried out using a conventional thermal initiator, dibenzoyl peroxide, along with Br‐TEMPO. The obtained polystyrene had an active bromine atom for ATRP at the ω‐end of the chain and was used as the macroinitiator for ATRP of methyl acrylate and ethyl acrylate to prepare block copolymers. The molecular weights of the resulting block copolymers at different monomer conversions shifted to higher molecular weights and increased with monomer conversion. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 44: 2468–2475, 2006     

Synthesis of poly(tetrahydrofuran)‐b‐polystyrene block copolymers from dual initiators for cationic ring‐opening polymerization and atom transfer radical polymerization

A dual initiator (4‐hydroxy‐butyl‐2‐bromoisobutyrate), that is, a molecule containing two functional groups capable of initiating two polymerizations occurring by different mechanisms, has been prepared. It has been used for the sequential two‐step synthesis of well‐defined block copolymers of polystyrene (PS) and poly(tetrahydrofuran) (PTHF) by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and cationic ring‐opening polymerization (CROP). This dual initiator contains a bromoisobutyrate group, which is an efficient initiator for the ATRP of styrene in combination with the Cu(0)/Cu(II)/N,N,N′,N″,N″‐pentamethyldiethylenetriamine catalyst system. In this way, PS with hydroxyl groups (PS‐OH) is formed. The in situ reaction of the hydroxyl groups originating from the dual initiator with trifluoromethane sulfonic anhydride gives a triflate ester initiating group for the CROP of tetrahydrofuran (THF), leading to PTHF with a tertiary bromide end group (PTHF‐Br). PS‐OH and PTHF‐Br homopolymers have been applied as macroinitiators for the CROP of THF and the ATRP of styrene, respectively. PS‐OH, used as a macroinitiator, results in a mixture of the block copolymer and remaining macroinitiator. With PTHF‐Br as a macroinitiator for the ATRP of styrene, well‐defined PTHF‐b‐PS block copolymers can be prepared. The efficiency of PS‐OH or PTHF‐Br as a macroinitiator has been investigated with matrix‐assisted laser desorption/ionization time‐of‐flight spectroscopy, gel permeation chromatography, and NMR. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 41: 3206–3217, 2003     

Synthesis of block and graft copolymers of β-pinene and styrene by transformation of living cationic polymerization to atom transfer radical polymerization

The transformations of living cationic polymerization to ATRP to form the block and graft copolymers of β-pinene with styrene were performed. Poly(β-pinene) carrying benzyl chloride terminal [poly(β-p)StCl] was prepared by capping the living poly(β-pinene), which was obtained with 1-phenylethyl chloride/TiCl₄/Ti(OiPr)₄/nBu₄NCl initiating system, with a few units of styrene. Poly(β-p)StCl, in conjunction with CuCl and bpy, could initiate the ATRP of styrene and gave well-defined block copolymer of β-pinene and styrene. In contrast, tert-alkyl-chlorine-capped poly(β-pinene) [poly(β-p)Cl] obtained by living cationic polymerization of β-pinene per se without capping of styrene gave a mixture of desired block copolymers and unreacted poly(β-p)Cl due to the low initiating reactivity of poly(β-p)Cl. Brominated poly(β-pinene) synthesized by the quantitative bromination of poly(β-pinene) using NBS was also used to initiate the ATRP of styrene in the presence of CuBr and bpy to prepare the graft copolymer of β-pinene and styrene. The first-order kinetic characteristic and linear increment of molecule weight with the increasing of monomer conversion indicated the living nature of this ATRP grafting.     

Synthesis of liquid crystalline–amorphous block copolymers by the combination of atom transfer and photoinduced radical polymerization mechanisms

The synthesis of ABA‐type block copolymers, involving liquid‐crystalline 6‐(4‐cyanobiphenyl‐4′‐oxy)hexyl acrylate (LC6) and styrene (St) monomer with copper‐based atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and photoinduced radical polymerization (PIRP), was studied. First, photoactive α‐methylol benzoin methyl ether was esterified with 2‐bromopropionyl bromide, and it was subsequently used for ATRP of LC6 in diphenylether in conjunction with CuBr/N,N,N′,N″,N″‐pentamethyldiethylenetriamine as a catalyst. The obtained photoactive functional liquid‐crystalline polymer, poly[6‐(4‐cyanobiphenyl‐4′‐oxy)hexyl acrylate] (PLC6), was used as an initiator in PIRP of St. Similarly, photoactive polystyrenes were also synthesized and employed for the block copolymerization of LC6 in the second stage. The spectral, thermal, and optical measurements confirmed a full combination of ATRP and PIRP, which resulted in the formation of ABA‐type block copolymers with very narrow polydispersities. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 41: 1892–1903, 2003     

Preparation of polyethylene block copolymers by a combination of postmetallocene catalysis of ethylene polymerization and atom transfer radical polymerization

The synthesis of block copolymers consisting of a polyethylene segment and either a poly(meth)acrylate or polystyrene segment was accomplished through the combination of postmetallocene-mediated ethylene polymerization and subsequent atom transfer radical polymerization. A vinyl-terminated polyethylene (number-average molecular weight = 1800, weight-average molecular weight/number-average molecular weight =1.70) was synthesized by the polymerization of ethylene with a phenoxyimine zirconium complex as a catalyst activated with methylalumoxane (MAO). This polyethylene was efficiently converted into an atom transfer radical polymerization macroinitiator by the addition of α-bromoisobutyric acid to the vinyl chain end, and the polyethylene macroinitiator was used for the atom transfer radical polymerization of n-butyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate, or styrene; this resulted in defined polyethylene-b-poly(n-butyl acrylate), polyethylene-b-poly(methyl methacrylate), and polyethylene-b-polystyrene block copolymers. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42: 496–504, 2004     

Synthesis and characterization of luminescent rod-coil block copolymers by atom transfer radical polymerization: utilization of novel end-functionalized terfluorenes as macroinitiators

Two novel, rigid, photoluminescent, substituted terfluorene derivatives were synthesized by utilizing direct bromination and Suzuki coupling reactions. These oligomers were used as initiators for the atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) of styrene and tert-butyl acrylate. Thus, diblock and triblock rod-coil block copolymers were prepared with well-defined structure, as far as their size and shape is concerned. Molecular weights up to approximately 21 000 and polydispersity indices not exceeding 1.5 in most cases were obtained. The copolymers emit blue light in solution, and their luminescence properties remain practically invariable when passing from solution to the solid state. No ground-state aggregation or excimer formation were observed in the solid state, even after annealing at high temperatures.     

Amphiphilic well-defined degradable star block copolymers by combination of ring-opening polymerization and atom transfer radical polymerization: Synthesis and application as drug delivery carriers

Atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) is one of the most popular advanced polymerization techniques in macromolecular science, allowing the synthesis of tailor-made polymers with controlled molecular weight, architecture, composition, and functionality. The combination of ATRP and ring-opening polymerization (ROP) provides a straightforward route for the preparation of polymers exhibiting both targeted and well-defined features and biodegradability, which is very interesting for the development of new materials for biomedical applications. Among the different types of polymer architectures, amphiphilic star block copolymers (BCPs) represent a very attractive one, due to their high degree of functionality at the molecular surface, low hydrodynamic volume and higher encapsulation ability, compared to molecular systems based on linear polymers. This review article highlights the research focused on the synthesis of amphiphilic well-defined degradable star BCPs by combination of ROP and ATRP, with particular focus on the development of polymers for biomedical applications, such as anticancer drug delivery, diagnosis therapy, or photodynamic therapy, which is the most investigated field regarding these polymers.     

Synthesis and characterization of liquid‐crystalline block copolymers with cyanoterphenyl moieties by atom transfer radical polymerization

A series of new mesomorphic block copolymers composedofdifferentmacroinitiators, including poly(ethylene oxide), polystyrene, and poly(ethylene oxide)‐b‐polystyrene,and polymethacrylate with a pendent cyanoterphenyl group were synthesized through atom transfer radical polymerization. The number‐average molecular weights of the three diblock copolymers, determined by gel permeation chromatography, were 10,254, 9,772, and 15,632 g mol^?1, and their polydispersity indices were 1.17, 1.28, and 1.34. The mesomorphic and optical properties of all the block copolymers were investigated, and they possessed a smectic A phase with mesophasic ranges wider than 100 °C. Moreover, X‐ray diffraction patterns provided evidence of the smectic A phase and the corresponding interdigitated packing of all the polymers. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 44: 4593–4602, 2006     

Block and star block copolymers by mechanism transformation. VI. Synthesis and characterization of A4B4 miktoarm star copolymers consisting of polystyrene and polytetrahydrofuran prepared by cationic ring‐opening polymerization and atom transfer radical polymerization

The synthesis of A₄B₄ miktoarm star copolymers, where A is polytetrahydrofuran (PTHF) and B is polystyrene (PSt), was accomplished with orthogonal initiators and consecutive cationic ring‐opening polymerization (CROP) and atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). The compound formed in situ from the reaction of 3‐{2,2‐bis[2‐bromo‐2‐(chlorocarbonyl) ethoxy] methyl‐3‐(2‐chlorocarbonyl) ethoxy} propoxyl‐2‐bromopropanoyl chloride [C(CH₂OCH₂CHBrCOCl)₄] with silver perchlorate was used to initiate the CROP of tetrahydrofuran. The obtained polymer contained four secondary bromine groups at the α position to the original initiator sites and was used to initiate the ATRP of styrene with a CuBr/2,2′‐bipyridine catalyst to form a C(PTHF)₄(PSt)₄ miktoarm star copolymer. The miktoarm copolymer was characterized by gel permeation chromatography and ¹H NMR. The macroinitiator C(PTHF)₄Br₄ was hydrolyzed to afford PTHF arms. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 39: 2134–2142, 2001     

Synthesis of a ‐shaped amphiphilic block copolymer by the combination of atom transfer radical polymerization and living anionic polymerization

The functionalization of monomer units in the form of macroinitiators in an orthogonal fashion yields more predictable macromolecular architectures and complex polymers. Therefore, a new ‐shaped amphiphilic block copolymer, (PMMA)₂–PEO–(PS)₂–PEO–(PMMA)₂ [where PMMA is poly(methyl methacrylate), PEO is poly (ethylene oxide), and PS is polystyrene], has been designed and successfully synthesized by the combination of atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and living anionic polymerization. The synthesis of meso‐2,3‐dibromosuccinic acid acetate/diethylene glycol was used to initiate the polymerization of styrene via ATRP to yield linear (HO)₂–PS₂ with two active hydroxyl groups by living anionic polymerization via diphenylmethylpotassium to initiate the polymerization of ethylene oxide. Afterwards, the synthesized miktoarm‐4 amphiphilic block copolymer, (HO–PEO)₂–PS₂, was esterified with 2,2‐dichloroacetyl chloride to form a macroinitiator that initiated the polymerization of methyl methacrylate via ATRP to prepare the ‐shaped amphiphilic block copolymer. The polymers were characterized with gel permeation chromatography and ¹H NMR spectroscopy. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 45: 147–156, 2007     

Peptide–polymer vesicles prepared by atom transfer radical polymerization

The peptide Ac‐Ser‐Ala‐Gly‐Ala‐Gly‐Glu‐Gly‐Ala‐Gly‐Ala‐Gly‐Ser‐Gly‐OH was prepared with solid‐phase peptide chemistry. Before the removal of the peptide from the solid support, the alcohol side groups of the two serines were functionalized with an α‐bromo ester moiety to create a bifunctional initiator. This peptide‐based initiator was used in solution for the atom transfer radical polymerization of methyl methacrylate to yield a well‐defined ABA triblock copolymer, in which the poly(methyl methacrylate) end blocks had a number‐average molecular weight of 1.1 kg/mol (based on ¹H NMR spectroscopy) and a polydispersity of 1.17. The aggregation behavior of this amphiphilic triblock copolymer was then investigated. Upon the suspension of the polymer in a mixture of tetrahydrofuran and water, followed by the removal of tetrahydrofuran, spherical aggregates were formed. By the application of different electron microscopy techniques, it was determined that these aggregates were polymersomes, presumably coexisting with large compound micelles. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 43: 6355–6366, 2005     

Synthesis of diblock copolymers by combination of organocatalyzed ring‐opening polymerization and atom transfer radical polymerization using trichloroethanol as a bifunctional initiator

This study reports an application of trichloroethanol (TCE) as a bifunctional initiator for the synthesis of block copolymers (BCPs) by organocatalyzed ring‐opening polymerization (OROP) and atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). TCE was employed to synthesize a low dispersity poly (valerolactone) macroinitiator, which was subsequently used for the ATRP of tert‐butyl methacrylate. While it is known that TCE can serve as an initiator in ATRP, the ability to induce polymerization under OROP is reported for the first time. The formation of well‐defined BCPs was confirmed by gel permeation chromatography and ¹H NMR. Computational studies were performed to obtain a molecular‐level understanding of the ring‐opening polymerization mechanism involving TCE as initiator. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Polym. Sci., Part A: Polym. Chem. 2016 , 54, 563–569     

Selective formation of diblock copolymers using radical trap‐assisted atom transfer radical coupling

Polystyrene (PSt) radicals and poly(methyl acrylate) (PMA) radicals, derived from their monobrominated precursors prepared by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), were formed in the presence of the radical trap 2‐methyl‐2‐nitrosopropane (MNP), selectively forming PSt‐PMA diblock copolymers with an alkoxyamine at the junction between the block segments. This radical trap‐assisted, atom transfer radical coupling (RTA‐ATRC) was performed in a single pot at low temperature (35 °C), while analogous traditional ATRC reactions at this temperature, which lacked the radical trap, resulted in no observed coupling and the PStBr and PMABr precursors were simply recovered. Selective formation of the diblock under RTA‐ATRC conditions is consistent with the PStBr and PMABr having substantially different K_ATRP values, with PSt radicals initially being formed and trapped by the MNP and the PMA radicals being trapped by the in situ‐formed nitroxide end‐capped PSt. The midchain alkoxyamine functionality was confirmed by thermolysis of the diblock copolymer, resulting in recovery of the PSt segment and degradation of the PMA block at the relatively high temperatures (125 °C) required for thermal cleavage. A PSt‐PMA diblock formed by chain extenstion ATRP using PStBr as the macroinitiator (thus lacking the alkoxyamine between the PSt‐PMA segements) was inert to thermolysis. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Polym. Sci., Part A: Polym. Chem. 2013, 51, 3619–3626     

Synthesis of coil‐comb block copolymers containing polystyrene coil and poly(methyl methacrylate) side chains via atom transfer radical polymerization

A series of polystyrene‐b‐(poly(2‐(2‐bromopropionyloxy) styrene)‐g‐poly(methyl methacrylate)) (PS‐b‐(PBPS‐g‐PMMA)) and polystyrene‐b‐(poly(2‐(2‐bromopropionyloxy)ethyl acrylate)‐g‐poly(methyl methacrylate)) (PS‐b‐(PBPEA‐g‐PMMA)) as new coil‐comb block copolymers (CCBCPs) were synthesized by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). The linear diblock copolymer polystyrene‐b‐poly(4‐acetoxystyrene) and polystyrene‐b‐poly(2‐(trimethylsilyloxy)ethyl acrylate) PS‐b‐P(HEA‐TMS) were obtained by combining ATRP and activators regenerated by electron transfer (ARGET) ATRP. Secondary bromide‐initiating sites for ATRP were introduced by liberation of hydroxyl groups via deprotection and subsequent esterification reaction with 2‐bromopropionyl bromide. Grafting of PMMA onto either the PBPS block or the PBPEA block via ATRP yielded the desired PS‐b‐(PBPS‐g‐PMMA) or PS‐b‐(PBPEA‐g‐PMMA). ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and gel permeation chromatography data indicated the target CCBCPs were successfully synthesized. Preliminary investigation on selected CCBCPs suggests that they can form ordered nanostructures via microphase separation. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Polym. Sci., Part A: Polym. Chem. 2016 , 54, 2971–2983