The rôle of countercurrent chromatography in the fractionation of complex mixtures

The biologically active pricipals in nature are frequently present as only a few parts per million of complex mixtures of non-volatile components and often have limited stability. Their isolation often requires the application of all available techniques, such as adsorption chromatography, ion exchange procedures, size exclusion techniques, and solvent partition methods consistent with their physical properties and stability. The process of countercurret chromatography is essentially liquid-liquid chromatography in which the stationary liquid bed is retained in the column by a force field rather than by a solid supporting matrix. Adsorption effects are thereby eliminated. The technique is particularly advantageous in the preparative separation of milligram to gram quantities of polar and labile organic compounds and bio-particulate materials such as cells and cell fragments. Virtually any twophase solvent system, either aqueous or non-aqueous may be employed. Countercurrent chromatography (CCC) provides a convenlent alternative to adsorption chromatography for fractionation of natural products or other complex mixtures. In some cases, this high resolution method offers advantages with regard to the avoidance of contamination from solid adsorbents, versatility, and relatively inexpensive operation. The article covers some of the applications, selection of solvents, and advantages of CCC.     

Separation of diarylethene-based photoswitchable isomeric compounds by high-performance liquid chromatography and supercritical fluid chromatography

Diarylethene-based photoswitches have become very popular over the last few decades for potential applications in chemistry, materials science, and biotechnology due to their unique physical and chemical properties. We report the isomeric separation of a diarylethene-based photoswitchable compound using high-performance liquid chromatography. The separated isomers were characterized by ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy and mass spectrometry confirmed the isomeric nature of the compounds. The isomers were purified by preparative high-performance liquid chromatography, providing fractionated samples to study the isomers individually. A total amount of 13 mg of an isomer of interest was fractionated from a solution of 0.4 mg/ml of the isomeric mixture. Because the preparative high-performance liquid chromatographic method required large quantities of solvent, we explored the use of supercritical fluid chromatography as an alternative separation mode which, to the best of our knowledge, is the first time this technique is used to separate diarylethene-based photoswitchable compounds. Supercritical fluid chromatography provided faster analysis times while maintaining sufficient baseline resolution for the separated compounds and consuming less organic solvent in the mobile phase compared to high-performance liquid chromatography. It is proposed that the supercritical fluid chromatographic method be upscaled and used in future fractionation of the diarylethene isomeric compounds, becoming a more environmentally benign approach for compound purification.     

Determination of cholesterol in milk fat by gas chromatography with direct injection and sample saponification

Summary A rapid and direct gas chromatographic (GC) method for determining free cholesterol in milk fat using a capillary column and programmed-temperature vaporizer-injector was assayed. It was compared with other procedures involving saponification of fat, solvent extraction of unsaponifiable matter — with and without fractionation by thin-layer chromatography — and transformation of sterols into silyl derivatives prior to GC analysis. This paper proposes an alternative to other published procedures. Repeatability of the method was assessed and the coefficient of variation determined as 2.1 %. The alternative saponification method exhibited comparable accuracy (coefficient of variation=1.8 %). Recovery ranged from 99.1 % to 105.6 %.     

Packed column SFC of gas oils part I: Hydrocarbon group separation using pure carbon dioxide

In this paper, the critical application of the ASTM method to hydrocarbon group separation in gas oils using conventional packed column SFC coupled to FID is described. Resolution of model compounds is studied using a recent commercial apparatus and the chromatographic conditions such as pressure, temperature, and density of the mobile phase and the nature of the stationary phase after FID detection conditions have been selected to give the best sensitivity. Three gas oils differing in composition (ratio arimatic/non-aromatic hydrocarbons)have been selected to evaluate the method for separation of the non-aromatic hydrocarbon group from mono-, di-, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons groups (sub-aromatic groups). The ASTM requiements for this analysis are very easy to obtain in adsorption chromatography. However, in adsorption or normal phase chromatography, SFC results cannot be perfect either for the quantification of aromatic and non-aromatic hydrocarbon fractions because there is still an overlap between the two groups (the separation is better in adsorption chromatography than in normal phase chromatography) or for sub-aromatic fractionation (the separation is better in normal phase chromatography than in adsorption chromatography); combination of both separation techniques only improves the sub-aromatic group fractionation. Thus, further enhancement of resolution for group and sub-group separation is needed.     

Analytical strategies for chemical characterization of bio‐oil

Bio‐oils, produced by biomass pyrolysis, have become promising candidates for feedstocks of high value‐added chemicals and alternative sources for transportation fuels. Bio‐oil is such a complicated mixture that contains nonpolar hydrocarbons and polar components which cover almost all kinds of organic oxygenated compounds such as carboxylic acids, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, furfurals, phenolic compounds, sugar‐like material, and lignin‐derived compounds. Comprehensive characterization of bio‐oil and its subfractions could provide insight into the conversion process of biomass processing, as well as its further utilization as transportation fuels or chemical raw materials. This review focuses on advanced analytical strategies on in‐depth characterization of bio‐oil, which is concerned with gas chromatography, high‐resolution mass spectrometry, FTIR spectroscopy and NMR spectroscopy, offering complementary information for previous reviews.     

A convenient room temperature polycondensation toward hyperbranched AB2‐type all‐aromatic polyesters with phenol terminal groups

As a convenient alternative to the classical melt polycondensation the one‐pot solution polycondensation of suitable AB₂ monomers under mild conditions has been successfully adapted to hyperbranched all‐aromatic polyester with phenol terminal groups. The polymerization was performed in solution at room temperature directly using commercially available 3,5‐dihydroxybenzoic acid as monomer and 4‐(dimethylamino) pyridinium 4‐tosylate as catalyst to suppress the formation of N‐acylurea. Different carbodiimides as coupling agents were investigated to find the optimal esterification conditions. The polymers have been characterized extensively and were compared with their well‐known analogs synthesized in melt. The characterization was carried out by NMR spectroscopy, size exclusion chromatography, and asymmetric flow‐field flow fractionation as an alternative separation technique for multifunctional polymers. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 47: 5158–5168, 2009     

Characterization of Polymers by Liquid Chromatography

Liquid chromatography (LC) is well established for the comprehensive characterization of complex macromolecules with multiple distributions. Hyphenated chromatographic methods in their various forms are currently one of the most promising and powerful methods for the fractionation and characterization of complex sample mixtures in different property coordinates. Modern detector technologies open up new ways to investigate various properties with high sensitivity even in the low concentration ranges used in chromatography. This paper discusses possibilities and applications for the advanced characterization of macromolecules.     

Fractionation of different PEGylated forms of a protein by chromatography using environment-responsive membranes

PEGylation of therapeutic proteins can enhance their efficacy as biopharmaceuticals through increased stability and hydrophilicity, and decreased immunogenicity. A site-specific PEGylated protein (e.g. mono-PEGylated at N-terminus) is frequently desirable as a product. However, multiple-PEGylated forms are frequently produced as byproducts. In this paper we discuss the fractionation of the different PEGylated forms of a protein by hydrophobic interaction chromatography using a stack of hydrophilized PVDF membrane, which has been shown to be environment responsive, as stationary phase. With the model protein examined in this study (i.e. lysozyme), the apparent hydrophobicity in the presence of a lyotropic salt increased with the degree of PEGylation. Based on this, unmodified lysozyme and its mono-, di- and tri-PEGylated forms could each be resolved into separate chromatographic peaks. Such fractionation was not feasible using conventional hydrophobic interaction chromatography using a butyl column. The use of membrane chromatography also ensured that the fractionation was fast and hence suitable for analytical applications such as product purity determination and monitoring of the extent of PEGylation reactions.     

Recent stationary phase-based fractionation strategies in proteomic analysis

In this article, we review stationary phase-assisted sample prefractionation in proteomic analysis in 2019–2022 period. Applications are grouped according to the mode of retention used in the prefractionation step prior to the final analysis by low-pH reversed-phase liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Online or offline instrumental configurations are also commented on, with a highlight on novel online platforms. From the articles reviewed in this period, the order of popularity of chromatographic modes for sample fractionation is affinity chromatography > size exclusion chromatography > hydrophilic interaction chromatography > high-pH reversed-phase liquid chromatography > ion exchange chromatography.     

A rapid method for fractionation and purification of a 92 kDa cartilage glycoprotein

Matrix glycoproteins are among the main components that contribute to the properties of cartilage. In this article we report on the development of a rapid method for the fractionation and purification of a 92 kDa glycoprotein from chick sternal cartilage. The developed procedure involves ion-exchange chromatography on DEAE-Sephacel, gel permeation chromatography on Sepharose CL-6B and semi-preparative SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Identification of protein was performed by western blotting using specific antibodies and purity by capillary electrophoresis. The proposed method is superior to those previously published since it eliminates the step of density gradient centrifugation.     

Prediction of the physicochemical properties of gasoline by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography and multivariate data processing

The estimation of physicochemical parameters such as distillation points and relative densities still plays an important role in the quality control of gasoline and similar fuels. Their measurements according to standard ASTM procedures demands specific equipments and are time and work consuming. An alternative method to predict distillation points and relativity density by multivariate analysis of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC×GC-FID) data is presented here. Gasoline samples, previously tested according to standard methods, were used to build regression models, which were evaluated by external validation. The models for distillation points were built using variable selection methods, while the model for relativity density was built using the whole chromatograms. The root mean square prediction differences (RMSPD) obtained were 0.85%, 0.48%, 1.07% and 1.71% for 10, 50 and 90% v/v of distillation and for the final point of distillation, respectively. For relative density, the RMSPD was 0.24%. These results suggest that GC×GC-FID combined with multivariate analysis can be used to predict these physicochemical properties of gasoline.     

Inverse GC Investigation of the Adsorption of Thiophenic Compounds on Zeolites

Inverse gas chromatography (IGC) has been used to examine the adsorption of organo-sulfur compounds on various zeolites. Results obtained were used to explain the behaviour of these materials as adsorbents for ultra-deep desulfurisation of fuels. The model compounds chosen were thiophene and 2,5-dimethylthiophene, with zeolite adsorbents NaX, HX, NaY and HY. Zeolite NaY showed the largest adsorption capacity. Adsorption isotherms in the gas phase are not representative of saturation adsorption in the liquid phase. However, the heat of adsorption and the specific interaction parameter were found to be well correlated to the strength and the selectivity of adsorption in the liquid phase by the different zeolites. The main conclusion of this work is that IGC is a useful tool for preliminary comparison of different adsorbents for the removal of sulfur compounds from fuels.     

Separation of alkaloids from herbs using high-speed counter-current chromatography

Alkaloids represent a most widespread group of bioactive natural products. Because of their alkalinity and structural diversity, the fractionation and purification of the alkaloids from herbs can often present a number of practical difficulties using the conventional chromatographic techniques. High-speed counter-current chromatography (HSCCC) is a liquid-liquid partition chromatography with a support-free liquid stationary phase, and is gaining more and more popularity as a viable separation technique for bioactive compounds from natural resources. In the present review, focus is placed on the separation of alkaloids by both conventional HSCCC and pH-zone-refining counter-current chromatography (CCC) techniques from herbs. The review presents the separation of over 120 different alkaloid compounds from more than 30 plant species by the conventional HSCCC and pH-zone-refining CCC. Based on the data from the literature, the proper solvent systems for the separation of alkaloids by the conventional HSCCC and pH-zone-refining CCC are also summarized.     

Comparison of Chromatographic Methods for the Determination of Bound Glycerol in Biodiesel

An important fuel criterion for biodiesel is bound glycerol, which is a function of the residual amount of triglycerides and partial glycerides in the biodiesel. Either high-temperature gas chromatography or high performance liquid chromatography can be used for determining these minor but important components in biodiesel. In this paper we have conducted a statistical study on the accuracy of the two methods for ascertaining the bound glycerol in biodiesel fuels obtained from different feedstocks. Analysis of variance showed that with one exception, namely diacylglycerols in some soy oil based biodiesel, there was no statistical difference in bound glycerol for the biodiesel samples analyzed or a difference between methods. Operationally, the high performance liquid chromatographic method is superior to the high temperature gas chromatographic method in that it requires no sample derivatization, has shorter analysis times, and is directly applicable to most biodiesel fuels.     

UV-based solvent system screening for high-speed counter-current chromatography fractionation of compounds with similar UV absorption from complex samples followed by preparative HPLC purification: Flavonoids from barley seedlings as sample

This article proposes a solvent system screening strategy for compounds with similar UV absorption in complex samples by UV spectrophotometer. There is no need to calculate the partition coefficient value of each compound, only the partition coefficient of the whole sample. The partition coefficient value should be close to 1 in order to obtain as many high-speed counter-current chromatography fractions as possible. Then, preparative HPLC was used to purify the high-speed counter-current chromatography fractions. Based on the above strategy, seven c-glycosyl flavonoids and an amino acid were successfully obtained from barley seedlings through high-speed counter-current chromatography fractionation with ethyl acetate/n-butanol/water (8:2:10, v:v:v) system followed by preparative HPLC purification. The research shows that high-speed counter-current chromatography could be well developed as a tool for fractionation before purification, and greatly improves the separation efficiency.     

Marinobufagenin extraction from Rhinella marina toad glands: Alternative approaches for a systematized strategy

Marinobufagenin is a bufadienolide compound detected mainly in skin and parotoid gland secretions of Rhinella marina (L.) toad. Bufadienolides regulate the Na⁺/K⁺‐ATPase pump by inhibiting the cardiotonic steroid dependent‐site and act as cardiac inotropes with vasoconstrictive properties. Marinobufagenin and other bufadienolides, such as telocinobufagin and bufalin, are thought to be found endogenously in mammals in salt‐sensitive hypertensive states such as essential hypertension, congestive heart‐failure, and preeclampsia. The role of marinobufagenin as antimicrobial agent and its cytotoxic potential have also been recognized. The particular interest around marinobufagenin prompts us to consider the Rhinella marina toad venom as a possible source for molecules with pharmacological and/or diagnostic potential. In this article, two different approaches of extraction and purification of marinobufagenin from Rhinella marina (L.) venom are studied: (i) Preparative thin‐layer chromatography combined to mass spectrometry and/or ultraviolet detection and (ii) solid‐phase extraction coupled with fractionation on high‐performance liquid chromatography. Different chromatographic conditions are tested for each approach. The solid‐phase extraction combined with high‐performance liquid chromatography fractionation approach was preferred as it offered a greater yield, was less time‐consuming and allowed us to selectively isolate marinobufagenin. Both protocols aim to provide efficient and convenient methods for toad venom extraction, based on an easily automatable and systematized strategy.     

Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Biodiesel Exhaust from Jatropha curcas and Chlorella variabilis by Gas Chromatography with Flame Ionization Detection

Biodiesel serves as a promising alternative to the conventional petroleum fuels and is considered to be a renewable source of energy which can be used in compression-ignition engines with minimum or no modifications. Two biodiesels derived from Jatropha curcas seeds and marine microalga Chlorella variabilis were substituted for petrodiesel and 16 priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (United States Environmental Protection Agency) were targeted for quantification through gas chromatography equipped with a flame ionization detector. For comparison, petrodiesel was selected as a control, and the analyte concentrations were calculated through calibration curves with correlation coefficient ranging from 0.9909 to 0.9999. The analytical figures of merit were determined for each analyte. The relative standard deviations for intra-day repeatability and inter-day reproducibility were in the range of 4.47–8.75%. The results indicated a significant decrease of around 77 and 68% in the overall polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in the particulate matter originating from J. curcas and microalga C. variabilis biodiesel, respectively. This study is perceived as an important step toward describing the green emission behavior of these biodiesels and their merits compared to the conventional petroleum-based fuels.     

Optimization of simulated moving bed chromatography with fractionation and feedback: Part II. Fractionation of both outlets

A new improvement based on outlet fractionation and feedback has been developed for simulated moving bed (SMB) chromatography. In this contribution, this fractionation and feedback SMB (FF-SMB) concept is extended to the general scenario which integrates a simultaneous fractionation of both outlet streams. A model-based optimization approach, previously adopted to investigate single fractionation, is extended to consider this flexible fractionation policy. Quantitative optimization studies based on a specific separation problem reveal that the double fractionation is the most efficient operating scheme in terms of maximum feed throughput, while the two existing single fractionation modes discussed in our previous study are also significantly superior to the conventional SMB operation. The advantages of the double fractionation extension are further demonstrated in terms of several more detailed performance criteria. In order to evaluate the applicability of the fractionation and feedback modification, the effect of product purity, adsorption selectivity, column efficiency and column number on the relative potential of FF-SMB over SMB is examined.     

吸热型碳氢燃料的核磁共振和色谱/质谱分析及热力学性质

测定两种吸热型碳氢燃料的^1H和^13C NMR谱,从NMR等实验数据计算得到平均分子结构参数。以基团贡献法为桥梁,总结定量结构—性能关系,从NMR结构信息预测了燃料的蒸发焓和燃烧焓,与热力学实验结果吻合良好。用GC/MS分析燃料的化学组成,检出主要由脂肪烃、芳烃和环烷烃3类构成的60余种烃类化合物,为吸热型碳氢燃料的结构和特性表征以及燃料的开发提供重要信息。     

Supercritical fluid chromatography and some of its applications: A review

The general topic of supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) is introduced, and historical aspects of its development are discussed. The physical properties of supercritical fluids, gases and liquids are tabulated. SFC is compared and contrasted with the classical forms of chromatography - gas chromatography (GC) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The selectivity of SFC, GC, and HPLC are discussed and compared. Instrumentation employed for supercritical fluid chromatography is depicted. A wide variety of SFC applications are introduced. New examples of the use of SFC for analysis of a variety of complex oligomeric mixtures indcluding polypropylene glycol, polysiloxanes, fluorocarbon oligomers (i.e. -3M's fluoro-chemical surfactant Fluorad 171, and Kel-F) and high molecular weight normal alcohols are shown. The use of SFC for separation of mono-, di-, and triglycerides at low operating temperatures is described. Lastly, the use of SFC for separations of complex hydrocarbon mixtures from liquid fuels, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, synthetic alpha-olefins, and petroleum functional group separations are depicted.