Gas hydrate phase equilibria for propane in the presence of additive components

A proper discussion on the possibility and feasibility of technological applications for gas hydrates requires knowledge of the phase behaviour and its relation to the gas hydrate structure and its occupation. This paper presents experimental data on gas hydrate phase equilibria for the system water+propane and for various systems of the kind water+propane+additive. The additives considered are tetrahydropyran, cyclobutanone and cyclohexane, which are assumed to occupy the large cavity of structure II (sII) hydrate, and methylcyclohexane that is a typical structure H (sH) hydrate former. All additives have in common that they are very poorly soluble in water and, therefore, an additional liquid phase is present in these systems. The pressure for the equilibrium hydrate–liquid water–vapour (H–L_w–V) in the system water+propane is reduced upon addition of each of these components. Simultaneously, the hydrate equilibrium hydrate–liquid water–liquid propane (H–L_w–L_C3H8) is shifted to lower temperatures. These observations can be explained in terms of mutual miscibility of propane and the additive component. However, it cannot be excluded that propane molecules are exchanged by additive molecules in occupying the large cavity of sII.     

Solubility measurements for the CH4 + CO2 + H2O system under hydrate–liquid–vapor equilibrium

Phase equilibria for the CH₄ + CO₂ + H₂O system have been investigated in the past, but mole fraction of methane and carbon dioxide in the bulk liquid phase has not been measured under hydrate–liquid–vapor equilibrium. Equilibrium liquid composition is very important as it defines the driving force for hydrate growth. This study presents the solubility of methane and carbon dioxide under H–Lw–V equilibrium. Emphasis is made on the effect of pressure along the respective isotherms on the equilibrium mole fraction of the individual hydrate formers in the liquid.     

Study on the recovery of hydrogen from refinery (hydrogen + methane) gas mixtures using hydrate technology

A novel technique for separating hydrogen from (H2 CH4) gas mixtures through hydrate formation/dissociation was proposed. In this work, a systematic experimental study was performed on the separation of hydrogen from (H2 CH4) feed mixtures with various hydrogen contents (mole fraction x = 40%-90%). The experimental results showed that the hydrogen content could be enriched to as high as ~94% for various feed mixtures using the proposed hydrate technology under a temperature slightly above 0℃ and a pressure below 5.0 MPa. With the addition of a small amount of suitable additives, the rate of hydrate formation could be increased significantly. Anti-agglomeration was used to disperse hydrate particles into the condensate phase. Instead of preventing hydrate growth (as in the kinetic inhibitor tests), hydrates were allowed to form, but only as small dispersed particles. Anti-agglomeration could keep hydrate particles suspended in a range of condensate types at 1℃ and 5 MPa in the water-in-oil emulsion.     

Phase Behavior of Microemulsions Formulated with Sodium Alkyl Polypropylene Oxide Sulfate and a Cationic Hydrotrope

The partial ternary phase diagram of anionic extended surfactant of alkyl polypropylene oxide sulfate C₁₂(PO)₄SO₄ alone and combined with the cationic hydrotrope, tetrabutyl ammonium bromide with water and decane were determined under ambient conditions. Middle phase microemulsion was formulated using salinity scans in the dilute region of surfactant/brine/decane. Visual inspection as well as cross polarizer and optical microscopy were used to detect anisotropy. Spinning drop tensiometer was used to measure interfacial tension (IFT). The first ternary phase diagram using the extended surfactant alone showed three one phase regions, the anisotropic lamellar liquid crystalline phase, L _α and the isotropic L₁ micellar liquid and L₃ sponge phase. In the second ternary phase diagram using the extended surfactant combined with tetra butyl ammonium bromide, an isotropic micellar region, L ₁, appeared in the diluted area of the phase diagram. Meanwhile the L _α phase disappeared completely and the three phase region has a bluish transparent middle phase. Interfacial tension measurements between middle phase and brine, and between decane and brine yielded ultra low values. Calculated IFT values using the characteristic length obtained using De Gennes approximation gave almost half the measured values. The interfacial rigidity was also calculated and compared to values obtained from the literature.     

Aqueous Phase Behavior of Diglycerol Fatty Acid Esters

We have studied the phase behavior of homologous series of diglycerol fatty acid esters (Qn‐D, for n=10, 12, 14, and 16, where n represents the carbon number in the alkyl chain length of amphiphile) in aqueous solution as a function of temperature and surfactant concentration. The different equilibrium phases present over a wide range of composition and temperature studied were characterized by means of visual observation under normal and polarized light, and x‐ray scattering techniques at small (SAXS) and wide angle (WAXS) regions. In diglycerol monocaprate (Q10‐D) and diglycerol monolaurate (Q12‐D)/H₂O systems, lamellar liquid crystal (L_α) phase is present in the surfactant rich region and it swallows an appreciable amount of water. The amount of water swallowed by the L_α phase was determined by plotting the interlayer spacing, d, as a function of reciprocal of the surfactant weight fraction W_s . In the dilute regions, dispersion of L_α phase in water is observed over a wide range of temperature. At higher temperatures, the L_α phase melts to isotropic two‐liquid phases in water rich region whereas to isotropic reverse micellar solution (O_m) in surfactant rich region. The L_α‐O_m transition temperature is increased on increasing the hydrocarbon chain length of the surfactant from Q10‐D to Q12‐D. There is surfactant solid phase in equilibrium with water up to 25°C in diglycerol monomyristate (Q14‐D)/H₂O system and the solid phase could solubilize 25 wt% water. The melting temperature of solid phase is practically constant in a wide range of compositions. Both the solid present region and the extent of water solubilization are increased in diglycerol monopalmitate (Q16‐D)/H₂O system. At lower surfactant concentrations, excess water appears and dispersion of solid in water is formed. The structure of the solid is identified by WAXS measurement and it is confirmed to α‐solid. Normal vesicular aggregates are formed in L_α+W regions in the Q14‐D/H₂O system at 25°C.     

负载PtSn金属助剂的镁铝水滑石上的丙烷脱氢反应研究

我们研究了以镁铝水滑石作为载体,利用水滑石层间阴离子的可交换性,负载活性金属铂和锡的丙烷脱氢反应.在镁铝水滑石载体中加入Ga能够影响丙烷脱氢活性,当镓的含量为1%时催化剂丙烷脱氢反应活性最高,反应初始时,丙烷转化率为46.5%,反应2 h后,丙烷转化率仍有37.5%.当以Mg(Ga)(Al)O-1%为载体时,考察了不同H_2/C_3H_8摩尔比对丙烷脱氢活性的影响,结果表明当H_2/C_3H_8摩尔比为0.5∶1时,丙烷脱氢反应具有最佳的反应活性,即当在原料气中加入H_2时,能够使得丙烷脱氢的转化率大幅度提升,且选择性也有所提升.烷烃脱氢是一个吸热反应,同时考察了温度对烷烃脱氢反应性能影响,结果表明温度越高,丙烷脱氢反应具有更高的转化率.对催化剂进行长时间寿命实验考察,发现当反应经过40 h后,丙烷的转化率仍有23.5%,说明Pt Sn-Mg(Ga)(Al)O-1%催化剂具有较好的稳定性.     

Phase equilibrium measurements for semi-clathrate hydrates of the (CO2 + N2 + tetra-n-butylammonium bromide) aqueous solution system

The application of semi-clathrate hydrate formation technology for gas separation purposes has gained much attention in recent years. Consequently, there is a demand for experimental data for relevant semi-clathrate hydrate phase equilibria. In this work, semi-clathrate hydrate dissociation conditions for the system comprising mixtures of {CO₂ (0.151/0.399 mole fraction) + N₂ (0.849/0.601 mole fraction) + 0.05, 0.15, and 0.30 mass fraction tetra-n-butylammonium bromide (TBAB)} aqueous solutions have been measured and are reported. An experimental apparatus which was designed and built in-house was used for the measurements using the isochoric pressure-search method. The range of conditions for the measurements was from 277.1 K to 293.2 K for temperature and pressures up to 16.21 MPa. The phase equilibrium data measured demonstrate the high hydrate promotion effects of TBAB aqueous solutions.     

Isothermal phase equilibria for the (xenon + cyclopropane) mixed-gas hydrate system

Isothermal three-phase equilibria of gas, aqueous, and hydrate phases for the {xenon (Xe) + cyclopropane (c-C₃H₆)} mixed-gas hydrate system were measured at two different temperatures (279.15 and 289.15) K. The structural phase transitions from structure-I to structure-II and back to structure-I, depending on the mole fraction of guest mixtures, occur in the (Xe + c-C₃H₆) mixed-gas hydrate system. The isothermal pressure–composition relations have two local pressure minima. The most important characteristic in the (Xe + c-C₃H₆) mixed-gas hydrate system is that the equilibrium pressure–composition relations exhibit the complex phase behavior involving two structural phase transitions and two homogeneous negative azeotropes. One of two structural phase transitions exhibits the heterogeneous azeotropic-like behavior.     

Vapour-liquid equilibrium data for the systems C2H6 + N2, C2H4 + N2, C3H8 + N2, and C3H6 + N2

High pressure vapour-liquid equilibrium data for the C₂H₆ + N₂, C₂H₄ + N₂, C₃H₈ + N₂, and C₃H₆ + N₂ systems are presented. The data are obtained isothermally in the range from 200 K to 290 K. For each point of data, temperature, pressure and liquid and vapour phase mole fractions are measured.Values for the vapour phase mole fractions are calculated from the obtained pressure, temperature and liquid phase mole fractions. The calculated values are compared with the experimental results, and it is found that the average mean deviation between calculated and experimental mole fractions is less than 0.009 for the systems considered in this work.     

Synthesis,structure, and solvent-extraction properties of tridentate oxime ligands and their cobalt(II), nickel(II), copper(II), zinc(II) complexes

Synthesis of four different types of ligands Ar[COC(NOH)R] _n (Ar = biphenyl, n = 1, HL¹; Ar = biphenyl, n = 2, H₂L²; Ar = diphenylmethane, n = 1, HL³; Ar = diphenylmethane, n = 2, H₂L⁴; R = furfurylamine in all ligands) and their dinuclear Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, and Zn²⁺ complexes is reported herein. These compounds were characterized by elemental analysis, ICP-OES, FT-IR spectra, and magnetic susceptibility measurements. The ligands were further characterized by ¹H NMR. The results suggest that dinuclear complexes of HL¹ and HL³ have a metal to ligand mole ratio of 2: 2 and dinuclear complexes H₂L² and H₂L⁴ have a metal to ligand mole ratio of 2: 1. Square pyramidal or octahedral structures are proposed for complexes of oxime ligands. Furthermore, extraction abilities of the four ligands were also evaluated in chloroform using selected transition metal picrates such as Mn²⁺, Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺, Cd²⁺, Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺. The ligands show strong binding ability towards Hg²⁺ and Cu²⁺ ions.     

Crystal structures of hydrates of simple inorganic salts. II. Water‐rich calcium bromide and iodide hydrates: CaBr2·9H2O,CaI2·8H2O,CaI2·7H2O and CaI2·6.5H2O

Single crystals of calcium bromide enneahydrate, CaBr₂·9H₂O, calcium iodide octahydrate, CaI₂·8H₂O, calcium iodide heptahydrate, CaI₂·7H₂O, and calcium iodide 6.5‐hydrate, CaI₂·6.5H₂O, were grown from their aqueous solutions at and below room temperature according to the solid–liquid phase diagram. The crystal structure of CaI₂·6.5H₂O was redetermined. All four structures are built up from distorted Ca(H₂O)₈ antiprisms. The antiprisms of the iodide hydrate structures are connected either via trigonal‐plane‐sharing or edge‐sharing, forming dimeric units. The antiprisms in calcium bromide enneahydrate are monomeric.     

Phase equilibria in ternary (carbon dioxide + tetrahydrofuran + water) system in hydrate-forming region: Effects of carbon dioxide concentration and the occurrence of pseudo-retrograde hydrate phenomenon

In the present work, the three- and four-phase hydrate equilibria of (carbon dioxide (CO₂) + tetrahydrofuran (THF) + water) system are measured by using Cailletet equipment in the temperature and pressure range of (272 to 292) K and (1.0 to 7.5) MPa, respectively, at different CO₂ concentration. Throughout the study, the concentration of THF is kept constant at 5 mol% in the aqueous solution. In addition, the fluid phase transitions of L_W–L_V–V → L_W–L_V (bubble point) and L_W–L_V–V → L_W–V (dew point) are determined when they are present in the ternary system. For comparison, the three-phase hydrate equilibria of binary (CO₂ + H₂O) are also measured. Experimental measurements show that the addition of THF as a hydrate promoter extends hydrate stability region by elevating the hydrate equilibrium temperature at a specified pressure. The three-phase equilibrium line H–L_W–V is found to be independent of the overall concentration of CO₂. Contradictory, at higher pressure, the phase equilibria of the systems are significantly influenced by the overall concentration of CO₂ in the systems. A liquid–liquid phase split is observed at overall concentration of CO₂ as low as 3 mol% at elevated pressure. The region is bounded by the bubble-points line (L_W–L_V–V → L_W–L_V), dew points line (L_W–L_V–V → L_W + V) and the four-phase equilibrium line (H + L_W + L_V + V). At higher overall concentration of CO₂ in the ternary system, experimental measurements show that pseudo-retrograde behaviour exists at pressure between (2.5 and 5) MPa at temperature of 290.8 K.     

Structural and calorimetric investigations on nonaqueous liquid crystals and gel phases in the binary system K-stearate/glycerol

The K-stearate/glycerol (KC₁₈/Gl) binary system was studied at mole fractions of stearate of x _KC18 = 0.10, 0.25, 0.30 and 0.50. Small- and wide-angle X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements were combined with differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) measurements at different temperatures. The investigations were intended to verify the previously published phase diagram and were targeted at the confirmation of the gel-like (G₁) phase and the isotropic (I) phase. The XRD and DSC measurements lead to the conclusion that the G₁ phase as well as the I phase, the existence of which had been proposed from texture observations, do in fact not exist. Consequently, a correction of the preliminary phase diagram is given. This corrected phase diagram reveals the crystalline phase (C) ⇆ gel phase (G) ⇆ hexagonal phase (H_α) ⇆ isotropic, micellar phase phase transitions for low KC₁₈ concentrations of x _KC18 = 0.15–0.3 and the C ⇆ G ⇆ lamellar phase (L_α) phase transitions for concentrations about or higher than x _KC18 = 0.35. The C, G, L_α and H_α phases have been further characterized by structural parameters (characteristic d values) as a function of temperature. The phase transitions C ⇆ G, G ⇆ L_α and G ⇆ H_α correlate with sharp shifts in the d value of the first small-angle reflections. Received: 20 April 1999 Accepted: 28 July 1999     

Phase equilibria for H2 + CO2 + H2O system containing gas hydrates

Isothermal phase equilibrium (pressure–composition in the gas phase) for the ternary system of H₂ + CO₂ + H₂O has been investigated in the presence of gas hydrate phase. Three-phase equilibrium pressure increases with the H₂ composition of gas phase. The Raman spectra suggest that H₂ is not enclathrated in the hydrate-cages and behaves only like the diluent gas toward the formation of CO₂ hydrate. This fact is also supported by the thermodynamic analysis using Soave–Redlich–Kwong equation of state.     

Investigations into the formation and characterization of microemulsions. I. Phase diagrams of the ternary system water—sodium alkyl benzene sulfonate—hexanol and the quaternary system water—xylene—sodium alkyl benzene sulfonate—hexanol

The phase diagrams of the ternary system water—sodium alkylbenzene sulfonate (NaDBS)-hexanol and the quaternary system water—xylene—NADBS—hexanol have been established at three different temperatures, namely 25, 37, and 50°C. The different phases formed have been qualitatively examined using optical (phase contrast and polarizing) microscopy. The textures of the various liquid crystalline phases in the ternary system have been identified, by comparison with previous studies in the literature. Some of the liquid crystalline phases have been quantitatively assessed using low angle X-ray diffraction. The latter measurements were also used to determine the unit cell dimensions in the various phases studied. With the quaternary system, particular attention was paid to the transparent region which consisted of an L₂ (inverse micellar) phase extending into another transparent region which has a blue “tinge” in some cases, namely the microemulsion (M) region. The amount of water solubilized in the L₂ (reverse micelle) or M + L₂ phase was calculated from the phase diagrams. With the ternary system the results showed a maximum in moles of water solubilized per mole total surfactant (NaDBS + hexanol) at a concentration of 0.3 mole surfactant, at an optimum molar ratio of n-hexanol to NaDBS of 4.5:1. This maximum was about twice with the quaternary system, when compared with that of the ternary system, indicating the importance of the role of xylene in solubilization of water by the surfactants. The present investigation has also shown that the extent of the microemulsion region is significantly reduced by increases of temperature when the NaDBS is lower than 15 wt%.     

Ionic mobilities and hydrophobic interactions in Ph4PCl-NaCl mixtures in hydroorganic solvents

The aim of this work is to correlate the experimental conductimetric ionic behavior with the hydrophobic properties of the Ph₄P⁺ ion. Ionic mobility determinations using radioactive tracers have been extended to Ph₄PCl-NaCl mixtures at a constant 0.5 molar total salt concentration over the whole range of electrolyte mixture composition. Molar conductance measurements have been carried out in water and in H₂O — 5 mole percent acetonitrile and H₂O — 5 mole percent dimethylsulfoxide. Deviations from the additivity law have been found to be maximum for a 0.6 mole fraction of Ph₄PCl. Large negative mixture effects, up to –27% in H₂O have been measured for the limiting case of a cation in trace amounts. The main experimental result is the decrease of the Ph₄P⁺ mobility with increasing proportion of Na⁺ ions in the mixture. The unexpected negative sign of the mixture effect for the less mobile cation is interpreted in terms of solute-solvent hydrophobic interactions and solvent structure. A possible dimerization of the Ph₄P⁺ ion is suggested. Densities of NaCl and Ph₄PCl in the aquo-organic solvents are also included.     

Experimental measurement and thermodynamic modelling of clathrate hydrate equilibria and salt solubility in aqueous ethylene glycol and electrolyte solutions

We present the extension of a recently developed method for modelling saline water to the thermodynamic prediction of phase behaviour for mixed salt–organic clathrate hydrate inhibitor aqueous solutions. Novel freezing point, boiling point and salt solubility data have been generated for NaCl–ethylene glycol (EG) and KCl–EG aqueous solutions. These data have been used in the optimisation of binary interaction parameters between salts and ethylene glycol. The extended thermodynamic model is capable of predicting complex vapour–liquid–solid (VLSE) equilibria for aqueous electrolytes and/or organic inhibitor solutions over a wide range of pressures, temperatures and inhibitor concentrations. Reliable hydrate dissociation data for two mixed salt–organic inhibitor quaternary systems (CH₄–H₂O–NaCl–EG and CH₄–H₂O–KCl–EG) have been measured at pressures up to 50 MPa. These data are used to validate the predictive capabilities of the model for hydrate equilibria. Good agreement between experimental data and predictions is observed, demonstrating the reliability of the developed model.     

Designing a heterotrinuclear CuII—NiII—CuII complex from a mononuclear CuII Schiff base precursor with dicyanamide as a coligand: synthesis,crystal structure,thermal and photoluminescence properties

Schiff bases are considered `versatile ligands' in coordination chemistry. The design of polynuclear complexes has become of interest due to their facile preparations and varied synthetic, structural and magnetic properties. The reaction of the `ligand complex' [CuL] {H₂L is 2,2′‐[propane‐1,3‐diylbis(nitrilomethanylylidene)]diphenol} with Ni(OAc)₂·4H₂O (OAc is acetate) in the presence of dicyanamide (dca) leads to the formation of bis(dicyanamido‐1κN¹)bis(dimethyl sulfoxide)‐2κO,3κO‐bis{μ‐2,2′‐[propane‐1,3‐diylbis(nitrilomethanylylidene)]diphenolato}‐1:2κ⁶O,O′:O,N,N′,O′;1:3κ⁶O,O′:O,N,N′,O′‐dicopper(II)nickel(II), [Cu₂Ni(C₁₇H₁₆N₂O₂)₂(C₂N₃)₂(C₂H₆OS)₂]. The complex shows strong absorption bands in the frequency region 2155–2269 cm⁻¹, which clearly proves the presence of terminal bonding dca groups. A single‐crystal X‐ray study revealed that two [CuL] units coordinate to an Ni^II atom through the phenolate O atoms, with double phenolate bridges between Cu^II and Ni^II atoms. Two terminal dca groups complete the distorted octahedral geometry around the central Ni^II atom. According to differential thermal analysis–thermogravimetric analysis (DTA–TGA), the title complex is stable up to 423 K and thermal decomposition starts with the release of two coordinated dimethyl sulfoxide molecules. Free H₂L exhibits photoluminescence properties originating from intraligand (π–π*) transitions and fluorescence quenching is observed on complexation of H₂L with Cu^II.     

A novel cadmium(II) coordination polymer with biphenyl‐3,3′,4,4′‐tetra­carboxylic acid and 4,4′‐bipyridine

A novel cadmium(II) coordination polymer, poly[[[bis­(4,4′‐bipyridine)cadmium(II)]‐μ₃‐4,4′‐dicarboxy­biphenyl‐3,3′‐di­carboxyl­ato] 0.35‐hydrate], {[Cd(C₁₆H₈O₈)(C₁₀H₈N₂)₂]·0.35H₂O}_n, was obtained by reaction of Cd(CH₃COO)₂·3H₂O, 4,4′‐bipyridine (4,4′‐bpy) and biphenyl‐3,3′,4,4′‐tetra­car­boxylic acid (H₄L) under hydro­thermal conditions. Each Cd^II atom lies at the centre of a distorted octa­hedron, coordinated by four O atoms from three H₂L²⁻ ligands and N atoms from two monodentate 4,4′‐bpy ligands. Each H₂L²⁻ ligand coordinates to three Cd^II atoms through two carboxyl­ate groups, one acting as a bridging bidentate ligand and the other in a chelating bidentate fashion. Two Cd atoms, two H₂L²⁻ anions and four 4,4′‐bpy ligands form a ring dimer node, which links into an extended broad zonal one‐dimensional chain along the c axis.