Damage Mechanisms Perspective on Superior Ballistic Performance of Spinel over Sapphire

Sapphire and magnesium spinel are two commonly used transparent armor materials. Although it is commonly believed that better mechanical properties often result in better field performance, the ballistic performance of spinel is reported to be superior to sapphire despite its inferior mechanical properties. The above discrepancy has been rationalized on the basis of mechanisms of deformation during impact loading. After reviewing the reported ballistic performance results on spinel and sapphire, we will discuss the relevant mechanical properties and their inability to explain the observed paradoxical behavior. We will then present differences in static (15 s duration) and dynamic (100 μs duration) indentation fracture characteristics and compare these observations to fracture modes witnessed during ball-on-rod impact tests. Lastly, the energy absorbed in various deformation mechanisms for each material is compared to draw a rationale for the intriguing behavior of spinel. Fracture along crystallographic planes in sapphire during ball impact allows large fragments to be ejected causing a significant loss in structural integrity and deeper projectile penetration, whereas the mixed mode fracture in spinel produces fine debris which opposes the incoming projectile and causes severe deceleration and erosion of the ball. Thus a mechanism based rationale has been provided to describe the superior performance of spinel over sapphire.     

DYNAMIC MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR AND PENETRATION PERFORMANCE OF WFeNiMo HIGH-ENTROPY ALLOY 1)

为了探究不同应变速率下WFeNiMo高熵合金的变形行为和侵彻性能, 采用万能材料试验机、分离式霍普金森压杆开展了高熵合金的静动态力学性能试验, 讨论了其在不同应变速率下变形特征微观机制. 基于弹道枪试验平台开展了高熵合金与典型钨合金(93W-4.9Ni-2.1Fe,wt%)破片对有限厚钢靶侵彻作用性能试验研究, 分析了两种合金破片侵彻作用过程与靶板破坏特征、侵彻穿孔能量消耗与撞击速度间的关系. 结果表明: 高熵合金、钨合金材料屈服强度与应变率呈正相关, 且在相同的应变率下高熵合金具有更高的屈服强度; 随着应变率的提高, 高熵合金由脆性断裂、韧脆混合的准解理断裂发展至具有黏着特性的破碎变形模式; 高熵合金具有较强的局部绝热变形能力, 在侵彻薄钢靶时体现出较高的剪切敏感性; 相同撞击速度下, 高熵合金破片穿靶消耗的能量低于钨合金破片, 对于薄钢靶具有更强的侵彻穿透能力. 高熵合金具有优异的力学性能和侵彻能力, 在高速撞击薄靶板时除了传统的剪切冲塞作用还具有一定的能量释放特性, 在预制破片上有较好的应用前景.     

WFeNiMo高熵合金动态力学行为及侵彻性能研究

为了探究不同应变速率下WFeNiMo高熵合金的变形行为和侵彻性能, 采用万能材料试验机、分离式霍普金森压杆开展了高熵合金的静动态力学性能试验, 讨论了其在不同应变速率下变形特征微观机制. 基于弹道枪试验平台开展了高熵合金与典型钨合金(93W-4.9Ni-2.1Fe,wt%)破片对有限厚钢靶侵彻作用性能试验研究, 分析了两种合金破片侵彻作用过程与靶板破坏特征、侵彻穿孔能量消耗与撞击速度间的关系. 结果表明: 高熵合金、钨合金材料屈服强度与应变率呈正相关, 且在相同的应变率下高熵合金具有更高的屈服强度; 随着应变率的提高, 高熵合金由脆性断裂、韧脆混合的准解理断裂发展至具有黏着特性的破碎变形模式; 高熵合金具有较强的局部绝热变形能力, 在侵彻薄钢靶时体现出较高的剪切敏感性; 相同撞击速度下, 高熵合金破片穿靶消耗的能量低于钨合金破片, 对于薄钢靶具有更强的侵彻穿透能力. 高熵合金具有优异的力学性能和侵彻能力, 在高速撞击薄靶板时除了传统的剪切冲塞作用还具有一定的能量释放特性, 在预制破片上有较好的应用前景.      

A3钢钝头弹撞击45钢板破坏模式的试验研究

为了研究破片模拟弹的终点弹道效应,进行了不同质量A3钢钝头弹(弹径25 mm)撞击45钢板的试验研究,其中A3钢强度弱于45钢。在约200～800 m/s的撞击速度范围内,随着撞击速度的增加,分别观察到弹体出现泰勒撞击、向日葵型花瓣帽形失效及靶板冲塞穿甲三种破坏模式。伴随弹体和靶体经历的不同结构破坏模式,弹材和靶材也经历着相当复杂的材料失效。     

Incremental deformation and penetration analysis of deformable projectile into semi-infinite target

In this paper, a new analytical method for projectile deformation and penetration into a semi-infinite target has been developed. This method is based on separated, successive and incremental steps. In deformation step, the target assumed rigid and the increment of projectile deformation was evaluated, whilst in penetration step, the projectile assumed rigid and the increment of penetration was evaluated. These sequential steps continued untill the projectile stopped.Furthermore, a series of ballistic tests have been carried out with ogival projectiles with striking velocity of 600–900 m/s. The projectiles and target plates material has been chosen from 4 types of steel. In this way, 210 tests for 48 combinations of projectile, target and velocity have been carried out. Numerical simulation has been also performed using the LS-DYNA code.Comparison between the depth of penetration obtained by this analytical method and those of the experimental and numerical ones shows a good agreement.     

W/ZrNiAlCu亚稳态合金复合材料破片对RHA靶的侵彻释能特性

为研究W/ZrNiAlCu亚稳态合金复合材料破片对RHA靶板的侵彻释能特性,采用高速摄影弹道枪侵彻实验和能量方程、Avrami-Erofeev方程理论分析的方法,对破片的侵彻释能过程、侵彻规律、释能规律进行了研究。结果表明,破片在撞击并贯穿靶板的过程中激发了材料的燃烧反应,在靶板前方和后方产生了明显火光,随着撞击速度增加,火光范围增加、亮度提高;破片撞击速度、冲塞体速度的关系符合采用能量法推导的包含质量损失的破片侵彻公式,破片理论弹道极限速度为987.1 m·s?1;在实验速度范围内,材料反应效率随着冲击压力的增加而增加,与实验现象吻合。     

The erosion transition of tungsten-alloy long rods into aluminum targets

This work extends and refines the phenomenological understanding of ballistic penetration in the vicinity of the erosion-threshold velocity, for the case of hemispherical-nosed tungsten rods striking ductile targets. Analysis, supported by experimentation, indicates a period of noneroding penetration for these configurations, which results from lateral support exerted by the target crater upon the deforming, yet noneroding, penetrator. Experiments indicate that the magnitude of the lateral support, the direct result of an interference fit between rod and crater, must be on the order of the target’s ballistic-penetration resistance, and does not vary with the impact velocity over the range studied. Analysis suggests that the duration of the noneroding portion of the ballistic event is neither governed by a fixed time, nor by a fixed depth of penetration, but rather by a fixed, permissible level of deformation in the penetrator.     

岩土工程下沉贯入数值模拟方法研究进展

岩土工程下沉贯入领域的数值分析,由于结构物贯入时网格变形过大而产生扭曲畸变等问题,常会造成收敛困难甚至计算结果失真.采用合适的数值方法分析此类问题颇具挑战性.本文系统介绍了近年来对于岩土下沉贯入数值模拟的研究现状和发展动态,对各种数值模拟方法的相关原理、主要特征以及优缺点进行简要的探讨.并简要介绍耦合的欧拉-拉格朗日(coupled Eulerian--Lagrangian,CEL)有限元法的基本原理,通过不排水条件下的条形基础贯入问题和砂土中桩的静压下沉示例分析,表明CEL有限元法在模拟岩土贯入问题时计算结果的准确性和较其他模拟方法的优势.文中所阐述的岩土贯入分析数值模拟方法可供从事岩土贯入分析的相关学者借鉴参考.     

Characterization of 10% Ballistic Gelatin to Evaluate Temperature, Aging and Strain Rate Effects

Ballistic gelatin is widely used as a soft tissue simulant in physical surrogates for the human body to evaluate penetrating impacts and, more recently to evaluate blunt impact and blast loading effects on soft tissues. It is known that the properties of gelatin are sensitive to temperature and aging time, but this has not previously been quantified. The mechanical properties of 10% ballistic gelatin were measured using a compression test apparatus with temperature controlled platens to maintain the sample temperature at a fixed level. Penetration testing was undertaken using a standard BB impact test to assess the effect of aging. The gelatin was found to be within calibration after 3?days (72?h of aging), based on the standard penetration test. The material properties were evaluated using the stress at failure, strain at failure and material stiffness as characterized by the Neo-Hookean constitutive model. The stress at failure and material stiffness increased with decreasing temperature and increasing strain rate, as expected, while the strain at failure remained relatively constant for the test conditions considered (1 to 23??C, strain rate from 0.01 to 1.0?s^?1). The study showed that the penetration resistance was consistent after 72?h of aging, while the mechanical study demonstrated increasing failure stress and stiffness with decreasing failure strain at longer aging times, suggesting that these effects offset one another so that the penetration resistance remains relatively constant. The primary contribution of this study was to show the importance of temperature and aging time, through mechanical and penetration testing, to achieve appropriate and consistent response from ballistic gelatin.     

椭圆截面截卵形刚性弹体正贯穿加筋板能量耗散分析

为获得椭圆截面截卵形刚性弹体正贯穿加筋板的剩余速度,根据椭圆截面弹体贯穿靶板的破坏特征,认为贯穿过程中靶板的能量耗散方式主要为塞块剪切变形功与塞块动能、扩孔塑性变形功、花瓣动力功、花瓣弯曲变形功、靶板整体凹陷变形功、加强筋侧向凹陷变形功。推导了每种能量计算方法,计算中定量考虑了靶板扩孔、花瓣弯曲、凹陷变形的应变率效应。根据能量守恒关系,得到了椭圆截面弹体剩余速度和弹道极限速度预测公式。并通过实验结果对模型进行了验证。结果表明:考虑靶板应变硬化、应变率效应的贯穿模型可以准确预测弹体剩余速度;随着椭圆截面弹体长短轴之比的增大,靶板的弹道极限速度近似线性增大;长短轴之比小于3时,加筋板的主要耗能为花瓣弯曲变形能、整体凹陷变形能。     

Deformation and Failure Modes of Soft Steel Projectiles Impacting Harder Steel Targets at Increasing Velocity

The present paper describes an experimental and numerical study concerning the impact of blunt steel projectiles against harder steel plates, at impact velocities between 200 and 800 m/s. In contrast with previously published observations, three modes of deformation and failure of the soft steel projectiles were observed in the present study. These included: Taylor cylinder mushrooming, sunflower-like petalling and plugging perforation. Individual velocity ranges and the transitions between the deformation/failure modes are identified by both experiments and numerical simulations. Complex material failure mechanisms of projectile and target play conflicting roles in the various penetration stages. Johnson–Cook models of strength and accumulative damage failure are employed in 3D numerical simulation to describe material behavior of both projectile and target. Computational evolutions of each scenario are offered in detail to understand the deformation and failure of projectile and target plate.     

对厚水层及多层间隙金属靶平面斜侵彻全物理过程的数值模拟研究

2D平面斜侵彻的数值模拟 ,可再现对应的 3D斜侵彻中最严重非对称受力面内的终点弹道效应 ,并为近似估算 3D斜侵彻等效弹迹及等效扩孔横截面积提供基础数据。利用重新设计和改造的LTZ 2D程序 ,解决了阻抗差异大的多物质厚靶的平面斜侵彻的计算问题 ,得到了定性上合理、定量上适用的结果。     

A3钢钝头弹撞击45钢板破坏模式的数值分析

不同速度范围内的A3钢钝头弹撞击45钢靶板分别表现为泰勒撞击、向日葵型花瓣帽形失效和靶板冲塞穿甲等3种不同的破坏模式,利用LS-DYNA对这种复杂的破坏机理和相应的影响因素进行了数值模拟研究。采用Johnson-Cook强度模型和累积损伤失效模型描述弹靶材料的力学性能,并考虑了塑性变形的绝热温升效应。数值模拟再现了不同破坏模式的失效过程,得到了与实验一致的结果。研究还指出,弹靶的冲塞穿甲实际是在高速撞击下,弹体发生花瓣帽形变形失效后继续穿甲靶板的后续结果。     

A numerical study of long rod impact onto a large target

The normal impact of a long rod onto a large target is studied using an Eulerian finite difference scheme. The impact velocity of 1.5 km s^?1 is chosen to be low enough for metal strength to be an important parameter characterising the impact. It is also sufficiently high for the rod to flow as a jet, which is consumed as it penetrates the target.The first numerical study neglects the material strength representation, so that the flow is inviscid. On impact, the flat face of the rod strikes the flat face of the target, and one dimensional analysis is used to check numerical predictions for the initial impact pressure and velocity. A steady state penetration is quickly achieved, at a velocity which is in agreement with theoretical predictions of jet flow. In the second numerical study, an elastic-perfectly plastic representation of material strength is included within the calculation. It is then found that the rod has to travel several rod diameters into the target before the penetration velocity falls from the one dimensional impact value to a steady state value. This implies that the resistance to flow increases with the depth into the target, and consequently the penetration achieved by a rod will be dependent on its diameter, as well as its length.     

钨球侵彻防弹衣加红松木复合靶的研究

为研究钨球对防弹衣加人体等效靶的侵彻性能,利用12.7 mm弹道枪对钨球侵彻三级软体防弹衣加25 mm厚红松靶开展了实验研究;在此基础上,利用LS-DYNA3D软件对侵彻过程及破坏机理进行了分析,并研究了钨球质量变化对弹道极限及靶板能量吸收的影响;依据量纲分析建立了钨球侵彻防弹衣加红松木复合靶的穿靶能量公式,推导了钨球的弹道极限公式。研究结果表明:0.17、0.21、0.44 g的小钨球侵彻防弹衣加红松木复合靶的弹道极限分别为742.3、692.9、570.1 m/s;侵彻过程中,防弹衣以基体开裂、纤维断裂和拉伸分层破坏为主,纤维层面内出现类似“十”字型的损伤,松木靶以剪切和冲塞剥落破坏为主;随着钨球质量的增加,弹道极限呈幂函数形式降低,靶板的能量吸收率逐渐降低;钨球穿靶能量公式及弹道极限公式的计算结果与实验结果吻合良好,可分别用于计算不同侵彻速度下的穿靶能量和不同质量钨球的弹道极限。     

爆炸荷载作用下结构冲量的测量

冲击摆是间接测量爆炸荷载下瞬态冲量的一种有效装置。常用的冲击摆为典型的复摆模型,设计、加工和数据处理复杂,质心难以准确测定,对冲量测定的精度影响较大。特别是测量爆炸载荷试验中的冲量时,遇到较大的困难。文中引入一种冲击摆的改进装置,将传统的冲击摆简化为等效单摆,限制了传统冲击摆的转动效应,考虑了阻尼对冲量计算的影响,减小了不确定性因素产生的试验误差。对比分析两种冲击摆在爆炸荷载下冲量的测量原理,改进装置具有设计加工简单、试验精度高、数据处理方便等优点。最后将改进装置应用于泡沫铝夹芯壳的爆炸试验中,通过测量其最大平动位移得到了待测冲量。试验结果也证明了改进装置的可行性．     

Analysis of the mechanics of perforation of projectiles in metallic plates

A mathematical model has been developed to describe the mechanism of normal perforation of projectiles in metallic targets. The perforation process is considered to be divided into three interconnected stages. The analysis accounts for an effective mass of the bullet due to part of the target material moving with the bullet, the deformation of the bullet during penetration, and the increased strength of the target material at high rates of loading. The analysis enables the residual velocity to be calculated as a function of the target thickness and its mechanical and physical properties, and of the mass, geometry and impact velocity of the projectile. The geometry of the cavity, i.e. entrance and exit diameters and plug thicknesses, are factors in the analysis and are empirical quantities. The present theory can also predict the force-time curve and the contact time for the perforation process.     

钢球斜侵彻碳纤维复合材料板的实验研究

为了研究碳纤维复合材料板（CFRPs）在斜侵彻下的抗弹性能,利用一级轻气炮对碳纤维复合材料板进行了70~280 m/s速度范围的0°、30°和45°的侵彻贯穿实验,通过高速摄影技术测量了弹体速度和弹道轨迹。分析了冲击角度对弹道极限、能量吸收和弹道偏转的影响。结果表明:在冲击能量较低时,靶板在正冲击下的能量吸收率比斜冲击高,而当冲击能量较高时则恰好相反;此外,由于弹体穿过层合板的穿透长度随着冲击角度的增加而增加,弹道极限随着冲击角度的增加而增加;而冲击角度对弹道偏转的影响则随着冲击速度的变化而变化。     

Full-Field Deformation Measurements of Aluminum Plates Under Free Air Blast Loading

Assessment of the structural dynamic response caused by an explosion is complex due to the high velocity impact, the transient nature of the deformation and the interactions between the structure and the pressure wave. This paper deals with full-field measurements of aluminum plates under free air blast loading conditions. Forty grams of explosive material C4 is detonated at a stand-off-distance of 250?mm and two synchronized high-speed cameras in a stereoscopic setup are used to capture the plate response with an inter frame rate of 6,000 fps. The transient deformation fields are calculated using a three-dimensional digital image correlation technique. The observations appeared to be interesting and somewhat counter intuitively. Results show that a free air blast load induces a highly localized, rapid material response which can be essentially divided in two different stadia. First, when the shock impulse occurs, all particles are forced to move out-of-plane and provided with initial velocities. Secondly, when the pressure wave has vanished, the deformation is further driven by this imparted momentum. This paper shows that a 3D high-speed DIC system is a powerful tool for the assessment of the dynamic response of a structure subjected to extreme loading conditions such as explosions and that this system is capable of accurately measuring surface displacement and deformation data at high rates. Moreover, a free air blast load makes it possible to load a plate specimen at different strain rates in different zones. This makes the test suitable for future material identification using inverse methods, which profit from heterogeneous displacement and strain fields.     

钨球对高硬度钢斜侵彻效应

为研究高硬度钢板抗不同着角钨球的侵彻性能及破坏模式,通过弹道枪进行了?8 mm、?11 mm钨合金球形破片以0°、20°、40°着角撞击厚度为6 mm、8 mm的高硬度钢板试验,得到了极限贯穿速度v₅₀;分析了钨球轴向径向变形及靶板失效模式与撞击速度的关系,发现高硬度钢板失效模式主要为压缩开坑破坏和沿厚度方向剪切破坏。采用有限元方法对试验进行了模拟,验证了数值模型及参数的合理性,并运用数值模拟方法研究了撞击着角对靶板吸能模式影响,结合试验数据,修正已有极限贯穿速度计算公式。结果表明:随侵彻着角增大,极限贯穿速度提高,且着角越大,极限贯穿速度增长越快;随着角增大,靶板吸能模式逐渐由压缩开坑向剪切冲塞过渡,且着角大于50°时,剪切冲塞耗能将超过压缩开坑耗能;修正后极限贯穿速度计算公式适用范围更广、精度更高,具有较好工程应用价值。